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KEEPING THE 
LAWS 

Ritchie 





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Book 



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COFUUGUT DEPOSm 



NHIV-IVORLD HEALTH SERIES 

BOOK III 



KEEPING THE LAWS 

A FIRST BOOK ON 
PHYSIOLOGY 

BY 

JOHN W. RITCHIE 

PROFESSOR OF BIOLOGY, COLLEGE OF WILLIAM AND MARY IN VIRGINIA 

AUTHOR OF NEW-WORLD HEALTH SERIES, AND OF " HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY " 

IN NEW-WORLD SCIENCE SERIES 



Illustrated by 

KARL HASSMANN, EARL HORTER, HARRY FREEMAN 
HERMANN HEYER and WILL H. SCHANCK 




YONKERS-ON-HUDSON, NEW YORK 

WORLD BOOK COMPANY 

1917 



^^^ 

New- World Health Series contains the widely used Primer of Hygiene, 
Primer of Sanitation, and Primer of Physiology, for elementary 
schools, sometimes known as the Three Health Primers. These Prim- 
ers are revised from year to year and kept thoroughly up to date, but a 
wholly new set, in large part rewritten, has recently been included in 
New-World Health Series, as follows : 

Book I : Learning to Live, A First Book on Hygiene. By John W. 
Ritchie, Cloth. Illustrated. In press 

Book II : Clearing the Way, A First Book on Sanitation. By John 
W. Ritchie, Cloth, Illustrated. J ust published 

Book III : ICeeping the Laws, A First Book on Physiology. By 
John W. Ritchie. Cloth. Illustrated. Just ptibltshed 

Books II and III : Life and Health, Consisting of Clearing the 
Way, a First Book on Sanitation, and Keeping the Laws, A 
First Book on Physiology. By John W. Ritchie, Cloth. Illustrated. 

Just Published 

WORLD BOOK COMPANY 

Established 1905 by Caspar W. Hodgson 
YONKERS-ON-HUDSON, NEW YORK 
2126 PRAIRIE AVENUE, CHICAGO 



,7^ 



JUN29I9I8 

Copyright, iqiby iqij^ by World Book Company. 
Copyright in Great Britain. All rights reserved, 

R-KL-i 



©CI.A501008 



PREFACE 

In this the most advanced volume of a series of ele- 
mentary school texts, the author has attempted to give 
the pupil a general idea of how the body lives ; to arouse 
in him a desire to put himself into harmony with the 
laws of his physical being; and to furnish him with 
information that will be useful in his efforts to lead a 
hygienic life. To the writer it seems especially impor- 
tant to build, during the time of youth, a right mental 
attitude toward matters of health. Space has therefore 
been found for a consideration of the reasons for hy- 
giene and for a discussion of the principles of health 
and of the results of living in accordance with them. 

To the author it seems absolutely fundamental that 
in a democracy the individual be put into possession of 
the information on which he is supposed to base his con- 
duct, especially when questions that affect the actions, 
not of an hour but of a lifetime, are involved. In this 
text, therefore, advice on matters of hygiene has been 
accompanied with the facts on which it rests, whenever 
this has been possible. It is believed that by thus pro- 
viding a basis of sound hygienic information a receptive 
spirit on the part of the pupil is insured, and that this 
greatly increases the effectiveness of all the health work 
in the schools. 

For advice during the preparation of this text the 
author makes acknowledgment to Dr. Charles P. Emer- 
son, Dean of the Indiana University School of Medi- 
cine, who has read the greater part of the manuscript. 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

1. Life and Health 157 

2. The Human Body and the Cells of Which It Is Built 161 

3. The Framework of the Body 169 

4. The Muscles and the Carriage of the Body . .178 

5. The Heart and the Circulation of the Blood . .190 

6. Respiration 203 

7. Ventilation 209 

8. Adenoids and Colds 219 

9. Clothing and the Body Heat 231 

10. The Nervous System 239 

11. The Care of the Nervous System 249 

12. The Ey^ 256 

13. The Ear 268 

14. The Organs of Touch, Taste, and Smell . . .275 

15. Foods and Why We Need Them 281 

16. The Digesti\^ Organs and Their Work . . . .291 

17. The Foods wtthin the Body 303 

18. Foods and Health 311 

19. The Teeth 324 

20. Tobacco 338 

21. Alcohol . 349 

22. Accidents 363 

23. Realizing Health Possibilities 375 

24. The Health of Posterity 385 

APPENDIX 

Food Values and Costs 394 

GLOSSARY 396 

INDEX 397 



KEEPING THE LAWS 



CHAPTER ONE 

LIFE AND HEALTH 




Fig. I. The length of time a top will spin depends on the conditions under 
which the spinning is done. 

Three boys threw their tops into a ring. One top 
hit a small stone and fell on its side. The second top 
struck in a sandy place in the earth and in thirty sec- 
onds its spinning was over. The third top found itself 
on smooth ground and it continued to spin for more 
than a minute. 

How long will a top spin ? We cannot say. It depends 
on the conditions under which the spinning is done. 

The length of human life. There is a common idea that 
the body has a certain " natural " Hfetime. This idea is 
not correct. In Europe three hundred years ago the 
average human life was twenty years. In 1910 it was 

157 



158 



KEEPING THE LAWS 



Europe 



forty years. At the present time in India it is twenty- 
four years. In Indiana it is forty-five years, and in 
Sweden it is fifty-two years. In New York City twelve 
Sweden years have been added to the 

average life since 1866, and in 
Massachusetts Indiana from 1900 to 1910 

human life lengthened at the 
rate of six months each year. 
During this period, therefore, 
the people of Indiana may be 
said to have won back one half 
India the time that the passage of 

Uthe years took from them. 
The human machine may be 
destroyed in its first month by 
lack of proper food ; it may 
suddenly be wrecked by disease 
germs after it has been running 
smoothly for twenty-five years ; 
52 yrs. 45 yrs. 40 yrs. 24 yrs. or it may give good scrvicc for 
Fig. 2. A diagram showing the sixty. Seventy, eighty, or even 

average length of life in different ^^^ hundred ycarS. A top 
parts of the world. The length of -' ^ 

time the human body lasts depends SpiuS longer On a SmOOth than 

on the care that it receives. q^ a rOUgh SUrfaCC, and the 

human body lasts longer when it lives and works under 
good conditions than when it is neglected and abused. 

Preventing sickness. In Ceylon for each looo people 
there are each day, on an average, 65 persons sick. In 
Spain for each 1000 inhabitants the daily average of sick 
persons in 191 2 was 44 ; in the United States it was 28 ; 
in Denmark it was 26 ; and in New Zealand it was 18. In 
London, Paris, Berlin, Munich, and Amsterdam in 1880, 



Jl i 



LIFE AND HEALTH 



159 



Cevlon 



Spain 




United States 

New 
Zealand 



the daily average number of the sick was 55 for each 
1000 inhabitants ; by igog the number had fallen to 31. 

These facts prove that the 
amount of sickness in different 
countries depends on the in- 
telHgence that the people use 
in caring for their health. 
They show that to a great ex- 
tent a nation can decide for 
itself how many of its people 
shall each day be sick and 
how many of them shall be 
well. 

Disease prevails because of 
ignorance. If it is possible to 
escape sickness, why do men 
suffer from it ? It is because 

Fig. 3. A diagram showing the 
most persons do not under- average daily number of sick per- 

stand that health can be de- sons per 1000 inhabitants in dif- 

T T T 1 TTT.^i . ferent countries in 1912. The 

served and earned. Withm . r • i • 

w^x VV.VX C4.11VX ^«.Axx^v^ iLxxxii ^j^q^j^^ ^f gickuess m any country 

the last forty years the real depends to a great extent on the 

causes of many diseases have ^"^^" ^^ inteUigence its people 

^ use in dealing with matters of 

been discovered, and the way health. 
to prevent many of the most 

important of them is now known. This knowledge 
has come into the world very suddenly, and people 
in general do not yet understand it. All over the world, 
therefore, because of their ignorance people are still 
suffering from disease. The ancient Greeks taught 
that knowledge is virtue and that ignorance is sin. 

^ We suffer from disease because of ignorance; we escape it through 
knowledge. — Richards. 




l6o KEEPING THE LAWS 

The great sin in the world of health today is ignorance, 
and we are punished for this ignorance by the prevent- 
able sickness that is among us. 

Keeping the laws of health. Cut 
your finger and you will suffer; 
burn your hand and you will smart 
for it. Keep the laws under which 
your body lives and you will enjoy 
health ; break them and you must 
bear the punishment. You did not 
make the laws of health ; you can- 
Ai ^. ^ not chans^e them. Nature has laid 

Fig. 4. Alexander the ^ 

Great. He died at the age down her rulcs, and the wisc coursc 

of 33 because he paid no f qj. yQ^ ^O f ollow is tO find OUt what 
attention to his health. , , , 1 . i x 1 

they are and then obey them. In the 
second part of this book we shall study the human body and 
the laws of its life. 

QUESTIONS 

What was the average length of life in Europe 300 years 
ago ? What is the average length of life at the present time 
in India ? in Massachusetts ? in Sweden ? In New York City 
how^ much has been added to the average life since 1866 ? How 
rapidly did human life lengthen in Indiana from 1900 to 
1910? Is there a ''natural" lifetime for the body? Give 
a reason for your answer. 

How many persons are sick each day for each 1000 inhabit- 
ants in Ceylon ? in Spain ? in the United States ? in Denmark ? 
in New Zealand? How much has sickness decreased in 
certain European cities during the last 30 years ? 

Why do people allow preventable illness among them ? 
What result follows the keeping of Nature's laws ? What is 
the result of breaking these laws ? What course should we 
pursue with regard to them ? 



CHAPTER TWO 



THE HUMAN BODY AND THE CELLS OF WHICH IT IS BUILT 

Have you ever watched a little plant push its way out 
of a seed, thrust its roots downward into the earth, and 
unfold its leaves to the light ? And have you seen such 
a plant grow larger day by day, until finally it blossomed 
and bore seeds like the one from which it grew ? If 
you have worked in a garden and understand plants, you 
must often have 
thought that they 
are very much 
like the people 
about us in the 
way they grow 
and go through 
the cycle of their 
lives. This is in- 
deed the truth, 
and, in order that 
you may better understand your own bodies, we shall 
begin this chapter by learning something of the structure 
of a plant and of how a plant grows. 

A plant composed of cells. If you could examine a 
small portion of a leaf or other living part of a plant 
under a microscope, you would find that, like the human 
body, it is made up of cells. Each cell is composed 
of a half-liquid living material, which is inclosed by a 
cell wall. In the center of the living matter is a denser 
portion, which is called the nucleus. Each cell is alive ; 
each takes in food and does all those things that make a 
living plant or animal different from sticks and stones 
and other things that are not alive. 

i6i 




Fig. 5. The life cycle of the bean. 



1 62 



KEEPING THE LAWS 




Fig. 6. A pine 
seed cut open to 
show the young 
plant in it. 



How the young plant starts from a cell called the egg. 

Break open a seed and you will find in it a young plant. 

Where did it come from ? It grew from a cell called the 
egg. This cell at first is like the other 
cells of which the seed is built, but at a 
certain time it increases in size and gathers 
to itself a rich food supply. It then be- 
gins to divide, and from it the new plant 
comes. Before we begin the story of its 
growth, however, there are some other 
facts that it is well for us to understand. 
The parts of a flower. Examine almost any common 

flower, and you will have no trouble in recognizing the 

parts shown in Figure 7. First come the little green 

sepals, then the bright-colored petals, next the stamens^ 

and in the center one 

or more pistils. The 

lower part of the pistil 

contains the young 

seeds and becomes the 

seed pod. In the heads 

of the stamens is a 

fine, powdery substance 

called/^//^;^. When we 

examine pollen under 

a microscope, we see 

that it is composed of 

a great number of little grains. Each little grain is, in 

reality, a cell; each contains living matter and a nucleus, 

as do other cells. 

The egg fertilized by the pollen. Bees visit flowers for 

the nectar that is in the blossoms and for the pollen, 




Fig. 7. The parts of a flower. To the 
left is a pistil cut open to show the location 
of the young seeds. 



THE HUMAN' liODV AND ITS CELLS 



1^)3 




is shown growing out 
from the grain. 



which they gather and mix with 
honey in making '' bee bread " for 
their young. In passing into a flower 

Fig. 8. Pollen grains, ^^d out of it, a bee often leaves pollen 

On the left a pollen tube on the sticky outer end of the pistil. 
When a pollen grain is thus left on a 
pistil, a long, threadlike tube grows 

out from it, makes its way down through the pistil 

to a young seed, enters the seed, and finds the egg 

(Fig. 9). Then a nucleus from the pollen grain passes 

out of the tube and unites with the 

nucleus of the egg. The uniting 

of the nucleus of the pollen grain 

with the nucleus of the egg is 

called fertilization^ and the egg is 

said to be fertilized, because in 

some way it is given the power to 

grow and make a new plant.^ 
The growth of the egg into a new 

plant. After the egg is fertilized, 

it begins to grow. In a very short 

time it divides into two cells. 

Each of these again divides, mak- 
ing four cells, and the process 

goes on until there is a group of 

many cells, which have come from 

the dividing of the egg. From these cells are formed 

the roots, the stem, the leaves, and the other parts of 




pollen 
grain 

pollen 
tube 



Fig. 9. Diagram show- 
ing how the pollen tube 
passes down through the 
pistil to the ^gg. 



1 When the pollen is washed away by rains, or when the spring is so cold 
and wet that bees and other insects cannot visit the flowers, the strawberry, 
plum, peach, and cherry crops fail. Without the pollen the eggs in the 
young seeds do not grow, the seeds die, and the fruits drop off. 



1 64 KEEPING THE LAWS 

the new plant. The outer ones change into skin or bark 
to protect the delicate living cells within. Some change 
into long wooden vessels to carry water from the earth 
up to the leaves ; some form vessels for carrying food 
throughout the plant ; and other cells take up all the 
different kinds of work that must be done within th^ 
plant. Usually the little plant stops at a certain stage 
of growth and rests within the seed until the warmth of 





C D 

Fig. io. Four stages in the development of the young plant from the ^gg. A 
represents the Qgg, B shows the division into two cells, and Cand D are later 
stages. In two of the cells in C, the nuclei have divided, but the new cell walls 
have not yet been formed. 

the next spring stirs the cells into renewed activity and 
calls the plant forth to a new life. 

The growth of the human body from a single cell. 
The human body, like the body of a plant, starts from 
one cell. This cell divides and redivides until it forms a 
great cluster of thousands of cells. Of these cells all the 
organs and parts of the body are built. Some cells build 
lime around themselves and form the bones. Some build 
a great network of tough fibers, called connective tissue 
fibers, which hold all the body together. Other cells 
make up the muscles; certain cells form organs for 
digesting the food ; the outermost ones make for the 
body a tough covering which we call the skin ; a great 



THE HUMAN BODY AND ITS CELLS 



I6S 




group in the head and along 

the back become the brain 

and nervous system; and 

still other cells become fitted 

for doing all the other kinds 

of work that must be done 

in the body. Thus we see 

that the human body, like 

the bbdies of all living things, 

whether they be plants or 

animals, starts with a single 

cell; and that when the body 

is grown, all its parts are 

composed of cells, or of sup- 
porting substances, like bone 

or connective tissue fibers, 

that the cells have built. 

The plan of the human body. When the growth of 
the human body is complete, we 
find that it is built according to a 
plan that is much like the plan of 
the bodies of other animals. Like 
the bodies of all the higher animals 
and of birds, frogs, and fishes, it 
has a head and trunk, and to the 
trunk are joinqd two pairs of limbs. 
In the back we find the jointed 
spinal column (page 171), which 
stiffens the trunk and at the same 

On the right is . . i i i 

nerve cell from time allows it to bend ; through the 
the brain; on the left, other parts of the body there are 

a muscle cell from the , .... 

stomach. Supporting bones with joints that 



Figs, ii and 12. In its first stage 
connective tissue is a group of cells 
which build around themselves a 
mass of jelly-like material, as shown 
in Figure ii. This material hardens 
into the fibers that are seen between 
the cells in Figure 12. All through 
the body a framework of connective 
tissue runs, holding the cells, organs* 
and tissues in place. 




Fig. 13. 
shown a 



KEEPING THE LAWS 




heart 
stomach 



intestine 



permit movement at certain places ; and within a large 
cavity in the front of the trunk are placed a set of great 
organs, each of which carries on some work that is 
necessary for our life. 
Among these organs are 
the stomach, intestine, 
and liver, which are con- 
cerned with the feeding 
of the cells ; the lungs, 
which take in oxygen 
and give off carbon 
dioxid ; the heart, which 
pumps the blood with 
its stores of food and 
oxygen through all the 
body ; and the kidneys, 
which remove poison- 
ous wastes from the 
blood. Other impor- 
tant organs in the human body are the brain, which lies 
securely within the skull, and the eyes, ears, and nose, 
through which the brain learns about the outside world. 
In later chapters we shall study in more detail all these 
organs and their work. 

Learning to care for the human body. In the first part 
of this book we studied about disease germs and how to 
avoid them. This is a most important subject ; for when 
germs get into our bodies they are like weeds in a garden, 
and we cannot have health while they are growing among 
our cells. At the same time, we must remember that if 
there were not a disease germ in all the world, so won- 
derful a machine as the human body with all its delicate 



Fig. 14. The principal organs of the body. 
The left lung has been removed and the 
edge of the right lung turned back to show 
the heart and blood vessels more clearly. 



THE HUMAN- JWDV JND ITS CI.LLS 



167 




organs and parts would still require intelligent care. 
A gardener not only fights weeds; he also waters his 
plants and supplies them with the food materials which 
they need. So to keep our bodies in 
health we must not only avoid disease 
germs but must also keep all our or- 
gans at work so that our cells may 
have the right conditions for their life. 
In order that we may know how to do 
this, we must understand the human 
body and its needs. 

Anatomy, physiology, hygiene. 
Anatomy is the study of the structure 
of the body, — of the way its organs 
and parts are made and how they are 
all united to form one whole. Physi- 
ology is the study of the functions of 
the body, — of how the body lives and 
of the work that each part does to 
keep up the life of all the cells of 
which the body is composed. Hygiene is the study of how 
to care for the body, — of what we must do to keep our- 
selves in health. It is necessary for you to study anatomy 
and physiology in order that you may understand your 
body and its needs, and you should understand hygiene 
because it teaches you how to keep your body strong for 
the work that is waiting for you in the world. 



Fig. 15. Cells from the 
lining of the trachea, 
fl! is a cell that manu- 
factures sticky mucus 
{b) in which dust and 
germs from the air are 
caught. The cilia {c) 
on the other cells are 
very fine, hair-like pro- 
cesses that beat up- 
ward and sweep the 
mucus, dust, and germs 
up out of the air pas- 
sages and lungs. 



QUESTIONS 

Of what is a plant composed ? Describe a cell. Where 
does the young plant within a seed come from ? Name the 
parts of a flower. What is pollen ? Why do bees visit flowers ? 



1 68 KEEPING THE LAWS 

What do they do for flowers ? What grows from the pollen 
grain when it is placed on the pistil ? What is fertilization ? 
Describe the growth of the ^gg. 

From what does the human body start ? Of what are all 
the organs of the body built ? Name some of the different 
kinds of cells and tissues in the body. Name the principal 
organs of the body and explain the work done by each. 

What is anatomy ? What is physiology ? Why do we study 
anatomy and physiology ? What is hygiene ? Why do we 
study hygiene ? 



CHAPTER THREE 



THE FRAMEWORK OF THE BODY 



Any one looking at the solid walls of a tall building 
would naturally suppose that these walls carried the 
weight of the great structure above them. As a matter 
of fact, the building has a steel framework which sup- 
ports it and braces it in time of storm, 
and the walls do not bear even their 
own weight. This is shown by the 
fact that the workmen often finish 
a portion of the wall many stories 
above the ground, before they build 
in the parts that connect it with the 
earth. The important thing in sup- 
porting the building, therefore, is 
the hidden framework which out- 
lines the shape of the building and 
carries its weight; it is not the 
walls, which are a mere covering 
hanging on the framework. 

The skeleton. The human body, 
like a great building, has a frame- 
work which gives the body its shape 
and provides support for it. This 
framework is composed of 206 bones. All the bones 
taken together are called the skeleton. 

In addition to supporting the body, the bones protect 
delicate organs like the brain and heart, and make it 
possible for the muscles to move the different body 
parts. Feel your wrists, your sides, your cheeks, or 
almost any part of your body, and you will find the 
bones under the skin and soft flesh. We shall now 

169 




Fig. 16. The weight of 
the building is carried by 
the steel framework. 



I/O 



KEEPING THE LAWS 



cranium 



clavicle 
sternum 

humerus 




tarsal hones 

metatarsals 
^phalanges 



Fig. 17. The skeleton. 



THE FRAMEWORK OF THE BODY 



171 



study the more important bones of the skeleton and 
the way in which these bones are joined to make a 
framework for the body as a whole. 

The spinal column the center 
of the skeleton. The backbone, 
or spi7ial cohcmii, is the center 
around which the whole skeleton 
is built. Not only does it run up 
the back and stiffen and support 
the trunk, but it also carries the 
head on its top, and it has the 
bones of the chest and the bones 
of the hips attached to it. It is 
composed of many short bones, — 
an arrangement which gives it a 
great number of joints and enables 
it to bend freely and easily in any 
direction. Each bone of the 
spinal column is called a vertebra 
(plural, vertebrce). Five of the 
lower vertebrae are joined to make 
one large, solid bone which is 
called the sacrum. Below the 
sacrum there are three or four 
small vertebrae which form a little 
tail-like structure, the coccyx^ on 
the end of the spinal column. 

The skull. The skeleton of the 
head, or skull, is composed of the 

fourteen bones of the face and of eight bones which make 
a strong box (the cranium) to protect the brain. In the 
skull of a little baby there are places where the bones 




Fig. 18. The skeleton of the 
head and trunk. 



172 KEEPING THE LAWS 

have not completely covered the brain. A baby's head, 
therefore, needs to be protected carefully from blows. 

The ribs and sternum. The ribs are twelve pairs of 
slender bones that curve around the chest. They are 
used in breathing and they protect the heart and lungs. 
At the back they are attached to the spinal column. In 
front, the seven upper pairs are joined to the breast- 
bone, or sternum^ and the next three pairs are hung from 
the ribs above. The two lower pairs have their front 
ends free, and are csW^d floating ribs. 

The bones of the shoulder. The shoulder has two 
bones, — the collar-bone, or clavicle^ and the shoulder 
blade, or scapula. The scapula is a flat bone which lies 
on the back of the shoulder. It is held in place by strong 
muscles, and at its outer end has a socket for the head 
of the arm bone. The clavicle has its inner end attached 
to the sternum and its outer end is propped against the 
point of the scapula. When the clavicle is broken, as 
by a fall, the shoulder drops forward and downward. 

The pelvis. The pelvic or hip bones are two large, 
widespreading, flat bones that can easily be felt in the 
sides. They are joined to the sacrum at the back 
and to each other in front. With the sacrum, these 
bones form the bowl-shaped pelvis, which gives support 
to the organs that lie in the lower part of the cavity of 
the abdomen and also furnishes a solid framework to 
which the legs are attached. 

The bones of the limbs. Each limb has in it thirty 
bones, and the bones of the arm and leg are very similar. 
The thigh has in it a great bone called the femur, 
and the arm has in it a corresponding bone called 
the humerus. In the leg below the knee there are two 



THE FRAMEWORK OF THE JIODV 



«73 




Fig. 19. From an X-ray 
photograph of a broken 
forearm and a wrist. The 
crosses show where the 
bones are broken. 



long bones, the tibia and the fibicla, and in the forearm 
there are two similar bones, the tihia and the radius. 
In the wrist we find a group of small 
bones (the carpal bones), and in the 
ankle is another group of small bones 
(the tarsal bones). In the hand are 
five bones {metacarpals^ each bear- 
ing a finger, and in the foot are five 
bones {metatarsals^ each bearing a 
toe. Finally, the fingers of each 
hand have in them fourteen bones 
{phalanges), and the toes have the 
same number of bones arranged in 
the same way. The arms and legs 
are built on the same general plan, 
but the wrist has one more bone 
than the ankle, and the elbow has no bone correspond- 
ing to the kneecap {patella) on the front of the knee. 

Bones composed of animal and mineral matter. A bone 
is composed of animal matter and mineral matter. The 
mineral matter is lime. The animal matter consists chiefly 
of tough fibers buried in the mineral groundwork of the 
bone. The animal matter gives the bone its toughness 
and keeps it from breaking. The mineral matter stiffens 
it and makes it able to bear the weight of the body. 

These statements you can prove for yourself by burn- 
ing one bone in the fire and soaking another in a weak 
acid. The first bone has the animal matter burned 
out of it and becomes brittle like chalk. The mineral 
matter is eaten out of the other bone by the acid, and 
the bone becomes limber like a piece of rubber tubing. 
You can easily imagine the difficulties you would be 



1/4 



KEEPING THE LAWS 





in if your skeleton lacked either the mineral matter 
which stiffens it or the animal matter which toughens it. 

Joints. Close your hand 
and watch your fingers as 
they bend. The bending is 
not in the bones themselves, 
but at the joints between the 
bones, and the advantage 
of having a jointed skeleton 
is that it makes movement 
possible. There are two 
principal kinds of joints in 
the body, — ball-and-socket 
joints and hinge joints. The 
former allow motion freely 
in any direction ; the latter 
allow motion only in two op- 
posite directions, as does a hinge. Good examples of ball- 
and-socket joints are found in the shoulder and the hip ; of 
hinge joints, at the elbow, at the knee, and in the fingers. 

Cartilage and ligaments. The 
ends of the bones at the joints are 
covered with a smooth, white material 
called cartilage^ which is kept moist 
by an oil that is secreted in the 
joints. This keeps down friction 
in the joints. Around the joints 
are many strong bands and cords 
of connective tissue called liga- 
ments. Their chief function is to 
tie the bones together, but they 
also inclose the joints so that the oil cannot escape. 



Figs. 20 and 21. On the left is 
shown the shoulder joint, an exam- 
ple of a ball-and-socket joint. On 
the right is the elbow joint, an ex- 
ample of a hinge joint. 




Fig, 



22. The ligaments 
of the wrist. 



THE FRAMEWORK OF THE BODY 175 

The treatment of sprains. When a joint is bent too 
far, the ligaments about it are either torn loose from the 
bones or broken. An injury of this kind is called a 
sprain, and a bad sprain often requires longer to heal 
than a broken bone. Some athletic trainers who are 
skilled in treating sprains insist that, if the joint can 
be properly supported, the injured member should be 
used as soon as possible. The reason given for this 
treatment is that exercise helps to keep up a good cir- 
culation through the part and also lessens the danger of 
the new ligaments being formed so short that the joint 
will be left stiff after the injured tissues have healed. 
It is difficult, however, to keep the parts from slipping 
about and breaking up the delicate new ligaments that 
are forming, and in most cases it is probably better to 
rest the injured part and exercise it only when this can 
be done without too great pain. 

Dislocations. When a bone is thrown out of place, it is 
said to be dislocated. A few persons have some joints 
so loosely tied together that a dislocation is possible with 
little or no injury to the ligaments, but usually in a case 
of dislocation the ligaments are badly torn and broken. 
In such a case, no one but a physician should be allowed 
to attempt to put the bones back in place ; for an un- 
skilled person may cause much pain and do great damage 
by pulling and twisting at an injured limb. 

Broken bones. When an arm or leg is broken, it 
should be kept stretched out straight so that the sharp, 
broken ends of the bone will not cut the muscles, nerves, 
and blood vessels of the limb. If the person must be 
moved, wrap a pillow, coat, or blanket about the injured 
member, using sticks or something else stiff enough to 




176 KEEPING THE LAWS 

keep it from bending, as shown in Figure 23. An in- 
jured person may be carried in a blanket, but a door, a 
cot, or other soHd support is better. In Hfting the per- 
son, the greatest 
care should be 
taken to keep the 
broken limb from 
bending sharply. 
The two parts 
of a fractured 

Fig. 23. A broken limb bandaged for moving the bone are Cemented 

P^'^"^'- solidly together 

by a jelly-like white substance which appears on the 
broken ends and hardens. If the broken ends are not 
brought together, the fracture cannot heal ; and if the 
injured part is not properly bandaged, there is always 
great danger that the bone will be crooked or de- 
formed after it has healed. No one but a physician 
ought to be allowed to set a broken bone. 

The skeletons of old persons and of children. The 
bones of old persons break easily, and a fracture in an 
old person heals very slowly or refuses to heal at all. 
Old persons, therefore, should be saved as much as 
possible from climbing stairs and from doing other things 
that may cause them to fall. In little children, on the 
other hand, the bones will bend considerably without 
breaking, and a fracture in a young person quickly heals. 

Caring for the skeleton in youth. Heavy lifting will 
cause a child to become round-shouldered ; tight cloth- 
ing may bend in the ribs and cramp the organs within 
the body ; and habitually sitting in a stooped position 
will cause the skeleton to take an incorrect shape. One 



THE FRAMEWORK OF THE BODY 1 77 

great cause of a drooping carriage of the head is near- 
sightedness, and if the eyes need glasses, these should 
be supplied. It is stated that some children thrust their 
heads forward because of the discomfort caused by their 
clothing rubbing on the backs of their necks, and that 
when their garments are cut low in the back they hold 
their heads erect. 

QUESTIONS 

Give three functions of the skeleton. Of how many bones 
is the skeleton composed ? What is the function of the spinal 
column ? What is one of the bones of the spinal column 
called ? W^hat is the sacrum, and of what is it composed ? the 
coccyx? How many bones are in the skull? What is the 
cranium ? Why should a baby's head be protected from blows ? 

How many ribs are there in the body ? W" hat is their use ? 
How are they attached at the back ? in front ? Name and 
describe the two bones of the shoulder. Describe the hip 
bones. To what are they attached at the back ? in front ? 
How many bones are there in each limb ? Name the bones 
of the arm. Name the bones of the leg. 

Of what is a bone composed ? What is the use of the ani- 
mal matter ? of the mineral matter ? How can this be proved ? 

Name the two principal kinds of joints in the skeleton. 
Explain the kinds of movements they allow and give examples 
of them. What is cartilage ? How is friction in the joints 
prevented ? Give two functions of ligaments. 

What is a sprain ? What treatment should be given a sprain ? 
What is a dislocation ? Why should a broken arm or leg be 
kept from bending ? How can this be done while moving an 
injured person ? How does a broken bone heal ? Why should 
old persons be guarded from falls ? W^hy should the skeleton 
have especial care in youth ? Name some things that may 
cause the skeleton of a young person to take an incorrect shape. 



CHAPTER FOUR 



THE MUSCLES AND THE CARRIAGE OF THE BODY 



It is a law of physics that a body at rest will remain 
at rest forever, unless some force sets it in motion by 
pushing or pulling on it. For ex- 
ample, it is the pulling and pushing 
of the hand that sends a thrown 
ball upward into the air. It is the 
pull of the earth that brings the 
ball down. It is the push of the 
gases that come from the explosion 
of the powder that sends the pro- 
jectile from a great gun. It is the 
pressure of the steam in the cylin- 
ders of an engine that sets the ma- 
chinery in motion and gives it the 
power to do work. Everywhere 
about us we see objects set in mo- 
tion, and in every case this is done 
by a push or a pull from an outside 
source. 

You can lift your arms; you can 
extend your legs; you can move 
your whole body from place to 
place. Something must be push- 
ing or pulling the different parts 
of the body to cause these move- 
ments. What is it that does this 
work ? It is the muscles that are 
framework of the body. There 
are more than five hundred of these muscles, and they 
make up two fifths of the body weight. You are famil- 

178 




Fig. 24. The muscles. 

Stretched upon the 



MUSCLES AND THE CARRIAGE OF THE BODY 179 



iar with the lean meat in the body of an animal, and as 
this is muscle, you already know something of the appear- 
ance and texture of this *' master tissue " of the body. 

The structure of a muscle. A muscle is composed of 
long, slender, fiber-like cells, which have the power of 
contracting, or shortening and thickening themselves. 
This action of the muscle fibers may be illustrated by 
allowing a stretched rubber band to come back to its 
natural condition; or you can get an idea of how the 
muscle cells change their shape by watching an earth- 
worm shorten and thicken its body as it crawls. 

The long, slender cells lie lengthwise in a muscle, 
and among them is a great network of connective tissue 
fibers, which ties the whole muscle together and attaches 
it to the skeleton. When the muscle fibers contract, they 
cause the whole muscle to shorten and thicken, as you 
can feel by laying your hand on your upper arm while 
the muscle draws itself together and lifts the forearm. 

How the muscles move the different parts of the body. 
The muscles stretch across the joints of the skeleton, 
and when a muscle con- 
tracts, it pulls the bones 
together and causes a 
bending at the joint. 
Exactly how this is done 
you can best understand 
by a study of Figure 25. 

Tendons. In many 
parts of the body long 
cords of connective tissue 
called tendons attach the muscles to bones that are at 
a distance from them. This plan of placing muscles 




Fig. 25. Showing how the muscles of 
the arm lift the forearm. 



i8o 



KEEPING THE LAWS 



at a distance from the parts that they move, keeps mem- 
bers like the hand from being covered with large muscles, 
which would be in the way when delicate work is to be 
done; at the same time it gives these members great 
strength and enables them to make many different move- 
ments. 

How the muscles move the body as a whole. You can- 
not stand on a ladder and pull the ladder up after you. 




muscle 



Fig. 26. The muscles of the forearm and the tendons that move the fingers. 

You cannot sit on a chair and lift it. Yet you can move 
your whole body by muscles that are a part of your 
body. This is possible because you have a jointed skele- 
ton that allows you to thrust out parts of the body and 
push against outside objects. How this is done you can 
best understand through an experiment. Stand close 
to the wall, place your hands against the wall, and 
straighten out your arms. This pushes you away from 
the wall and moves your whole body. 

It is by this same method of pushing against some- 
thing that all the different kinds of locomotion in the 
animal kingdom are brought about. The fish, in swim- 
ming, pushes itself forward by striking its tail and fins 
against the water. The bird, in flying, forces itself 
onward and upward by beating against the air with its 



MUSCLES AND THE CARRIAGE OF THE BODY I<Sl 



^\*ilWilll(lUII'"'l|i 



wings. In walking and running, we drive ourselves 
forward by pushing with the feet against the ground. 

The muscles that support the body. Not only do the 
muscles move the body, but they support it when it is 
held erect. Muscles on the front and 
the back of the neck keep the head 
balanced on top of the spinal column. 
When we stand upright, other mus- 
cles hold the skeleton from bending 
at the ankles, knees, and hips, and at 
the joints of the spinal column. The 
most powerful muscles of the whole 
body are those of the back, which lie 
both in front of the spinal column 
and behind it. They are so impor- 
tant iu the carriage of the body, that 
we shall study them in some detail. 

Muscles that support the head. The 
head is held from drooping forward 
by muscles which rise from the verte- 
brae of the trunk, from the ribs, and 
from the bones of the shoulder; they 
are attached to the bones of the neck 
and to the back of the skull. The 
action of these muscles can be illus- 
trated by attaching a string to the first 
joint of the finger, as is shown in 
Figure 28. Other muscles on the 
front of the neck keep the head from that*l^I'along^th^"back 
being drawn too far backward. of the spinal column. 

The muscles that support the trunk. The trunk is 
kept erect by muscles along the back of the spinal 



l82 



KEEPING THE LAWS 




column, by heavy muscles that brace the spinal column 
in front in the region of the waist, and by muscles in 
the walls of the abdomen. The action of these muscles 
we shall now take up separately. 

The muscles along the back of the spinal column rise 
from the sacrum and pelvic bones and run up the back 
as high as the base of the neck (Fig. 27). Their func- 
tion is to keep the trunk from falling forward. Their 
action may be illustrated by attach- 
ing a cord to the finger and drawing 
it down the back of the hand, as is 
shown in Figure 28. 

The abdominal muscles are 
stretched between the pelvic bones 
and the ribs and sternum. When 
they contract, they draw the trunk 
forward and cause it to stoop, and 
they keep the body from being 
drawn over backward by the 
muscles of the back. By examin- 
ing Figures 17 and 18, you can 
Fig. 28. Illustrating the g^^ where these muscles are at- 

attachment and action of the 

muscles that support the tachcd and yOU will readily under- 
head and trunk, stand how they work in opposi- 
tion to the muscles of the back. 

The pull of the muscles along the back causes a 
forward curve in the spinal column at the waist. The 
spinal column is therefore supported in front in this 
region by strong muscles that brace it against the back 
muscles and keep it from bending too far forward. The 
lower ends of these muscles are attached to the femurs, 
which they lift in walking and running (Fig. 29). An 



/ 




MUSCLES AND THE CARRIAGE OF THE JWDV I<S3 

examination of Figure i8 will show you how the spinal 
column bends forward above the sacrum. Study the 
drawings of the muscles that He in front of the spinal 
column and along the back of it, until you understand 
how they keep it upright by their opposing action. 

The carriage of the body dependent on the spinal col- 
umn. The whole upper part of the body stands on the 
spinal column as on a stem, and if we wish to keep the 
body erect, we must hold the spinal 
column upright by contracting the 
muscles along it. When there is 
any fault of the carriage, exercises 
are valuable to strengthen the par- 
ticular muscles that are weak. The 
best way to teach the muscles to 
hold the body upright, however, is 
simply to form the habit of sitting, 
standing, and walking erect. Ob- 
serve both your own carriage and 
that of others, and then try to put 
into practice when standing and 
walking the following rules : 

** Stand tall,'' tJiriistingiip the top 
of the head as high as possible. 

Walk as if you were hung by the 
top of the head. 

Hold the chin close to the neck. F^^. 29. View from the 

j^ J J J r J 7 • front of one of the muscles 

T'ress the back of the neck against that keep the spinal column 

the collar b?ltton. ^^^m bending too far for- 

j^ J J , . ward at the waist. 

Keep the abdomen in. 

Mistakes made in trying to secure an erect carriage. 

When the head droops forward, the mistake is often 




1 84 



KEEPING THE LAWS 



made of trying to bring it to an upright position by 
pulling the shoulders back. This is trying to remedy 
the fault in the wrong way ; for the shoulders them- 
selves are supported by the spinal column, and nothing 
that can be done to them will hold the head erect. The 
true remedy is to tighten the muscles along the back 
of the neck and bring to an upright position the upper 

part of the 
spinal col- 
umn, on which 
the head rests. 
Shoulder 
braces are 
generally use- 
less, for they 
fail to reach 
the real 
trouble. 

Another 
mistake com- 
monly made 
is to throw the head and chest back, and at the same time 
allow the back to be bent in at the waist and the abdomen 
to be thrust forward. In this case, again, the remedy is 
to straighten the curve in the spinal column. Persons 
who have difficulty in keeping the abdomen from being 
thrown too far forward, need to exercise and strengthen 
the muscles that lie along the front of the spinal col- 
umn at this point. As you will remember, these mus- 
cles are attached by their lower ends to the bones of 
the thighs, and one of the exercises that is practiced 
in strengthening them is to lie flat on the back and 




Figs. 30 and 31. Running and hill or mountain climbing 
strengthen the muscles that support the spinal column, 
and help in securing a good carriage. 



MUSCLES AND THE CARRIAGE OF THE BODY 185 

draw the legs up toward the body. Walking, running, 
and hill chmbing also exercise and strengthen these 
muscles. 

Good health important in securing an erect carriage. 
Ill health makes the task of carrying the body erect 




Fig. 32. Showing the arch of the foot, and how a high-heeled shoe props it 

up on end. 

very difficult. Naturally the head droops forward if it 
is not held up, and if because of sickness the muscles 
are weak and lie slack on the skeleton, they must all 
the time be forced to do the work that they ought to 
do naturally and without effort. Ill health during the 
growing years has an especially bad effect on the car- 
riage ; for after the skeleton hardens and is fitted to- 
gether at the joints, it is difficult to change its shape; 
and after the muscles develop to fit a stooped skeleton, 
their length is not easily changed. 

The foot and the carriage of the body. The foot is a 
lowly member of the body, but it is one that makes a 
great deal of trouble if it is abused. Since a pair of 
deformed and painful feet make a good carriage of the 
body impossible, and since most foot troubles are due to 
shoes, we shall take up in this chapter the question of 



1 86 



KEEPING THE LAWS 




Fig. 33. A shoe that many per- 
sons find comfortable. 



how the foot carries the body weight, and of fitting the 
foot with a correctly shaped shoe. 

The arch of the foot and high-heeled shoes. The skel- 
eton of the foot is built in the form of an arch, which 

acts as a spring when the 
weight of the body falls upon 
it. A high-heeled shoe props 
this arch up on end, instead 
of allowing it to stand in its 
natural position. This inter- 
feres with the plan of support- 
ing and carrying the body ; for 
it partially takes away the 
springiness of the skeleton, 
and it puts the muscles on both 
the back and front of the leg on a strain. Some persons 
have worn high-heeled shoes so long that their muscles 
have become adapted to the position into which such 
shoes throw the body, but a position of this kind causes 
backache and great fatigue in many persons who have 
spent a barefoot childhood, or who are accustomed to 
shoes of a different kind.^ 

Shoes that interfere with the support of the foot. The 
weight of the foot falls on the heel, on the great toe 
and the ball of the foot behind the great toe, and along 
the outside of the foot behind the little toe. The foot 
is, therefore, a tripod, and if anything interferes with 
any of its three points of support, it becomes unsteady. 
Small heels give a narrow point of support at the 

^ High heels were introduced by Louis XIV of France, a little man who 
felt small among his noblemen and hit upon this plan for increasing his 
height. 



MUSCLES AXJ) THE CARRIAGE OE THE RODY 1 8/ 

back and, especially when they point forward, make 
walking insecure. Shoes with pointed toes bend the 
great toe outward and interfere with the inner front 







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Figs. 34, 35, and 36. From X-ray photographs taken during investigations 
made by the United States Army. Figure 34 shows a foot in a shoe supposed 
to follow the lines of the foot, and commonly regarded as sensible. Note how 
the bones of the third and fourth toes are curled under, and how the great toe 
is bent in toward the other toes. Figure 35 shows the unshod foot of a soldier 
standing on one leg and bearing his 40-pound marching equipment. Note 
how the foot expands and lengthens under pressure. Figure 36 shows a foot 
in the shoe recommended for adoption in the United States Army (Fig. 37). 
Note the free play of the toes. 

point of support, causing the wearer to turn the toes 
out and tending to cause the arch of the foot to be 
turned over on its inner edge.^ Tight shoes interfere 
with the outer point of support of the foot by keeping 
the bones back of the toes from springing down and 

^ In the heel, the point of support is toward the outside, and the inner 
side of the ankle is in a great measure held up by the tendons from the 
muscles in the calf of the leg. If for any reason the muscles of the leg are 
weak, the inner side of the ankle is not sufficiently supported by them and 
the arch of the foot is allowed to turn over on the inside. The wide, low 
heel shown on the shoe in Figure 38 is built forward and out under the 
inner side of the ankle to support the foot at this weak point. 



KEEPING THE LAWS 




Fig. 37. The shoe recom- 
mended, after months of study 
and experiment, for use in the 
United States Army. 



spreading apart in a natural manner and thus throwing 

part of the weight on the outside of the foot. All this 

causes tired and painful feet, 
and makes walking difficult 
and fatiguing. Undoubtedly 
many cases of nervousness 
come from the discomfort that 
is caused by improperly shaped 
shoes, and many persons, es- 
pecially women, suffer greatly 
in health because their feet will 
not allow them to take the ex- 
ercise they need. 

A good shoe and the proper 
position of the foot in walking. 

A good shoe should have a wide, low heel. It should 

not bend the great toe around toward the other toes^ 

but should allow it to ex- 
tend in line with the inside 

of the foot. It should be 

wide enough to allow the 

toes and the foot to spread 

in standing and walking, 

so that the natural points 

of support of the foot may 

be taken advantage of. 

It should be long enough 

not to cramp the toes, and 

it should have a box in it „ o a r ^ i ^i. • .i, 1. 

Fig. 38. A hne drawn lengthwise through 
high enough not to press the center of the heel should run through 

on the toes and cause in- ^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^• 

growing nails and corns. It is also very important that 





MUSCLES AND THE CARRIAGE OF THE BODY 189 

the shoe be built so that a straight Une running length- 
wise of the shoe through the center of the heel will also 
run through the center of the toe. The best authorities 
now hold that in walking we should carry the feet point- 
ing straight forward, and not ** toe out/' as was formerly 
taught. When the toes are turned outward, there is a 
tendency for the arch of the foot to be twisted so that it 
lies on its inner side, while the outer side is raised from 
the ground. 

QUESTIONS 

How many muscles are there in the body ? What part of 
the body weight is muscle ? 

Describe the cells of a muscle. What is the function of 
the connective tissue in a muscle ? How does a muscle 
cause the skeleton to bend at a joint ? What is a tendon ? 
Of what advantage is it to have tendons in the body ? Ex- 
plain how the muscles move the body in walking and in 
running. 

What function have the muscles in addition to that of 
moving the body ? Where are the most powerful muscles in 
the body? What muscles support the head? Describe the 
three sets of muscles that support the trunk. Give five rules 
for securing a correct carriage of the body. Why are 
shoulder braces often useless? Explain how exercising the 
legs keeps the spinal column from bending too far forward at 
the waist. How does ill health make a good carriage diffi- 
cult to secure ? 

Why are high-heeled shoes bad ? On what three points of 
the foot does the body weight fall ? What is the objection to 
narrow heels ? to heels that point forward ? to shoes with 
pointed toes ? to tight shoes ? Describe a good shoe. What 
is the correct position for the foot in walking ? 



CHAPTER FIVE 



THE HEART AND THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD 




In New York City the street cars, automobiles, and 
wagons fill the streets ; the elevated trains roar over- 
head ; and deep in the earth 
the trains in the subway rush 
on and on in a procession 
that never ends. Nor is this 
all of the transportation sys- 
tem of the city ; for water and 
gas are piped underneath the 
streets to the homes of the 
people ; most of the wastes 
of the city are carried away 
by underground sewer pipes ; 
and the electricity which 
lights the city and runs much 
of its machinery passes 
silently along wires to the 
places of its use. In these and in many other ways the 
carrying problem of the city is solved. 

The carrying problem in the body. As a city is com- 
posed of a multitude of people, so is the body composed 
of a multitude of cells — 400,000,000,000, according to 
one estimate. Each of these cells must have food and 
oxygen, and each must get rid of its wastes. There 
must, therefore, be a transportation system in the body, 
and it must be one that is always in working order — 
not one that breaks down and fails in its work from time 
to time. Transportation by water is more reliable than 
any other method that has yet been devised, and this is 
the method we find used in the body. 

190 



Fig. 



39- 



Transportation in 
York City. 



New 



THE HEART AND THE CIRCULATION- 1 91 

The carrying in the body done by the blood. All 

through the body there is a great system of tubes, or 
pipes, called blood vessels. Night and day the heart 
pumps the blood through these vessels. Everything 
that the cells need is dissolved in the blood and carried 
to them in the blood stream. Into this stream each cell 
gives off its wastes to be carried away. Tims all the 
carrying ivitJiifi the body is done by the bloody and tJie 
blood is kept in constaitt motion through the body by the 
heart. 

Arteries and veins. The blood in its movement, or 
ci7xnlatio7i, through the body flows through the same 
channels again and again, always returning to the 
starting point, the heart. We have, therefore, two sets 
of blood vessels in the body, — the arteries^ which carry 
the \Aoodi front the heart, and the veiiis^ which bring the 
blood to the heart. The large arteries send branches to 
the different parts of the body. These branches divide 
into finer and finer branches and finally end in very 
small vessels called capillaries. These run in among all 
the cells and then unite to make small veins. The 
veins, like the creeks that form a river, keep coming 
together, until finally all of them are united into the 
great veins which carry the blood back to the heart. 

To understand how the blood passes from an artery 
into a vein, think of two trees standing with their trunks 
close together and their tops touching each other. Then 
imagine that the blood flows up the trunk of one tree, 
out into its branches and twigs, then on into the twigs 
and branches of the other tree, and down its trunk. If 
the blood should make a circuit of this kind through the 
trees, its journey would be like the one that it makes 



192 



KEEPING THE LAWS 



when it passes out from the heart through an artery 
and returns to the heart through a vein. 

The heart. The heart lies in the chest with its 
point to the left of the center. Its walls are made of 
strong muscles, and within the 
heart are four chambers, or cavi- 
ties, two on each side. On each 
side the upper cavity is called 
an auricle; the lower cavity, a 
ventricle. 

The action of the heart. The 
veins pour the blood into the auri- 
cles. Then the walls of the auri- 
cles contract and force the blood 
down into the ventricles. Next, 
the strong walls of the ventricles 
close in on the blood, and drive 
it out into the arteries and all 
through the body. After forcing 
the blood into the arteries, the 
Walls of the ventricles relax, and for a moment the heart 
rests. Then again the auricles, contracting on the blood 
that has flowed in from the veins, fill the ventricles, 
and the ventricles pump the blood on into the arteries. 
Place your hand on the left side of your chest, and you 
will feel your heart move as its walls close in on the 
blood and force it onward through the vessels. 

The valves of the heart. In every pump there must 
be valves to keep the liquid from flowing backward. 
The heart, like other pumps, is provided with these 
valves, — two between the auricles and the ventricles, 
and two at the mouths of the arteries to keep the blood 




Fig. 40. The heart. 



THE HEART ANT) THE CIRCULATION 193 



liver 




left auricle 
valves 

lung 
left 
ventricle 



intestine 
artery to leg 



Fig. 41. Diagram showing the circulation of the blood. Note the valves be- 
tween the auricles and ventricles and at the mouths of the great arteries that 
open out of the ventricles. 



194 



KEEPING THE LAWS 



from flowing backward into the ventricles when their 
walls relax and the chambers open after each beat. In 



:^^-~^ 





Fig. 42. A diagram of the right side of the heart showing the working of 
the valves. When the blood flows into the auricles and the ventricles relax^ 
the valves of the heart are as shown in A. When the ventricles contract 
and the blood flows out into the arteries, the valves are as shown in B. 

Figure 41 you can study out where the valves are 
placed, and from Figure 42 you can understand how 
they prevent a backward flow of the blood 
in the vessels and in the heart. 

Tracing the circulation of the blood. 
Trace the circulation of the blood in Figure 
41, and you will see that the heart is a 
double organ ; that the right side sends the 
blood on a short journey through the lungs 
and back to the left side ; and that the left 
side drives the blood into the arteries for a 
long journey through all the body and back 
again to the right side of the heart. The 
blood flows through the vessels very swiftly, 
making the journey through the lungs in 
about fifteen seconds, and the long journey 
through the body in less than a minute. 




Fig. 43. A 
diagram of a 
pump. Locate 
the valves and 
explain how 
they work. 



THE HEART AND THE CIRCULATION- 



195 



The blood composed of plasma and corpuscles. The 
blood is composed of a liquid part called plasma, and 
of millions of little cells called corpuscles, which float 
in the plasma. About nine tenths of the plasma is 
water. The remainder is composed of dissolved food 
and other materials that are needed by the cells, and 
of the wastes that come from the cells. The corpuscles 
are of two kinds, the red and the white. The red 
corpuscles are so abundant that there are miUions of 
them in the smallest drop of blood. 
It is the red corpuscles that give the 
red color to the blood. 

The function of the corpuscles. As 
the blood passes through the lungs, 
it takes oxygen from the air that is 
breathed into the lungs. The oxygen 
is then carried through all the body 
and given up to the cells. TJiis ca7'ry' 
ing of the oxygen is done by the red 
corpuscles. Like little boats floating in 
the blood stream, they take up their 
loads of oxygen in the lungs, carry the 
oxygen out through the body, unload 
it for the hungry cells, and hasten back 
to the lungs for more of the oxygen which the cells 
must have. The importance of this work is shown by 
the fact that when the heart ceases to beat, or when 
a person is under water so that the oxygen is cut off 
from the lungs, the life of the body quickly comes to 
an end. 

The white corpuscles are larger than the red ones and 
are fewer in number. Tlieir work is to kill the disease 




Fig. 44. Red blood 
corpuscles {A) and 
white blood corpuscles 



196 



KEEPING THE LAWS 



germs that get into the body. This, as you will readily 
understand, is a most important work. 

The lymph. The blood capillaries are so small and so 
abundant among the cells that you cannot stick a pin 
into your tissues anywhere without breaking many of 
them and letting the 
blood escape. The 
capillaries have very 
thin walls, and as 
the blood flows 
through them some 
of the plasma es- 
capes and passes out 
into the spaces 
among the cells. 
This escaped plasma 
is the lymph, to 
which we have re- 
ferred a number of 
times in earlier 
chapters of this 
book. 

The lymph a middleman between the cells and the 
blood. In Figure 45 you can see how the cells lie 
among the capillaries, and how they are bathed in 
the lymph that escapes through the thin walls of 
these vessels. The cells, therefore, are not in the 
blood stream, but this stream, so to speak, merely 
passes by the house, and the cells must find some 
way of getting their supplies from the stream into 
the house. This is done through the lymph. As 
the red corpuscles pass along in the capillaries, the 




lymph 



plasma 



white 
corpuscle 

.red 
corpuscle 

Fig. 45. The cells are bathed in lymph, which 
is plasma that escapes through the thin walls of 
the small blood vessels. (Diagrammatic.) 



THE HEART AND THE CIRCULATION- 1 97 

oxygen breaks loose from the corpuscles, passes out 
through the walls of the vessels into the lymph, and 
so reaches the cells. In the same way, the foods that 
are dissolved in the plasma make their way out into 
the lymph that surrounds the cells, and the wastes 
that the cells give off pass through the lymph into 
the blood and are carried away. The lymph acts as a 
viiddleman betwec7i tJie cells aiid the blood, passing the 
oxygen and food from the blood to the cellsy and the 
wastes from the cells to the blood. 

The lymphatic vessels. Among the cells of the body 
there is, besides the blood capillaries, a system of fine, 

thin-walled lymphatic capilla- 
ries. These unite and form 
larger vessels, which finally 
empty into the veins of the 
shoulders. TJie lymphatic 
vessels act as a drainage sys- 

Fig. 46. Lymphatic vessels in ^^;;^ f^^ ^^^ ^^^,^ ^^^^ fj^^i^ 
the fingers. ... 

fimction IS to gather tip and 
drain off the stale, impicre lymph from among tJie cells 
and empty it into the blood. This allows fresh lymph 
to escape among the cells, bringing with it sup- 
plies of food and oxygen. The lymphatic vessels of 
the greater part of the body unite in one great vessel 
called the thoracic duct. This runs up the back of the 
cavities of the abdomen and chest, and empties into the 
large vein in the left shoulder. 

The importance of caring for the heart. The respon- 
sibility of keeping the whole transportation system of 
the body in operation falls on the heart, which is usually 
about the size of the fist of the person to whom it be- 





198 KEEPING THE LAWS 

longs. Night and day, from birth until death, this little 
organ pumps away, giving a stroke oftener than once a 
second. We cannot replace an injured valve in it with a 
new one; it could not stop long enough for that, even if 
we knew how to do it. If it becomes overworked, or if 
it is poisoned by disease germs, there 
is no second pump to take its place 
while it rests and gets into good condi- 
tion again. It is such a wonderful 
organ that usually it gives us little 
Fig. 47. Valves in an cause f or Complaint ; yet there are 

artery where it leaves ^^^^^j^ ^j^j^ ^,^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^ 

the heart. There are ^ •' ' 

three valves attached and for OUr OWU gOOd We OUght tO 

like loose pockets to know of thcsc things and avoid them. 

the wall of the artery, ttt 1 n 1 c • r 

When the blood starts We shall therefore mention some of 
to flow backward into the points that are important in the 

the heart, it catches in ^^^^ ^f ^^^ ^^^^^ 

the pockets, which then 

swing out and close the The hcait injutcd by disease germs. 

opening into the heart, gy f g^j. ^^^ x^o^X. COmmoU CauSC of 

trouble in the heart is disease germs. In diphtheria and 
scarlet fever the nerves that supply the heart and the 
'muscle cells of the heart walls are so damaged by the 
poisons produced by the germs, that even in the 
mildest cases of these diseases, physicians frequently 
forbid the patient to sit up in bed, because they fear 
the effect of the strain on the heart. Furthermore, 
the heart is often so poisoned by an attack of one of 
these diseases that it does not recover for years, and 
it may fail under any extra strain that is put upon it 
during this time. In other diseases, such as pneumonia, 
rheumatism, and influenza, the germs themselves attack 
the valves and cause them to shrivel and harden, so that 



THE HEART AND THE CIRCULATION 199 

they allow the blood to leak backward, and the heart is 
damaged for life. As much as possible, therefore, we 
ought to avoid all these germ diseases, — the catching 
diseases which are so common, and which people often 
carelessly give to each other. After an at- 
tack of one of these diseases, hard exercise 
should be avoided until the heart has had time 
to regain its strength. 

Too much exercise injurious to the heart. 
When the muscles are working, they need 
more food and oxygen and give off more ^^^- 48. a 

valve in a 

wastes than when they are at rest, ihe vein. The 

heart must therefore pump the blood more veins have 

swiftly through the body when we use the ^o^revent^h" 

muscles. This you can prove for yourself blood from 

by noting how much harder and faster your ^o^^'^"? t)ack- 

. - , . - ward when 

heart beats after runnmg or after domg other pressure 
hard work. Indeed, when we take hard and comes on the 
long-continued exercise, it is usually the ^^^^^* . ^^" 

^ ' -^ your finger 

heart that becomes tired first of all, although down a vein 
we may not feel it. ^^ y°"^ ^^^^- 

^ . r r arm, and little 

There may be danger, therefore, of over- knots win 
working the heart by long-continued or very stand out on 
severe exercise, especially at that time of life ^^^ ^^^^ ^!,^^^ 

^ ^ pomts where 

when the boy or girl is entering manhood or the valves are 
womanhood and the body rapidly increases located. 
in size. When overworked, the heart, like any other 
m.uscle, at first enlarges, and then, if the overworking is 
kept up, becomes weak and flabby. This condition of 
the heart is called '^athletic heart." If a person whose 
heart has been injured by overexercise takes a long rest, 
going to bed, if necessary, his heart usually recovers. 



200 KEEPING THE LAWS 

He ought, however, to take care not to force his heart 
into this condition. 

Proper and improper exercise. Do not keep on at any- 
heavy work or hard game until you are exhausted. Do 
not play tennis all day. Do not spend a whole Satur- 
day afternoon playing football. Remember that a base- 
ball pitcher needs a stout heart as well as a stout arm, 
and that, for the sake of both your arm and your heart, 
you should not stay in the pitcher's box a whole half-day 
at a time. Do not enter long Marathon races that are 
intended for men and not for boys, and do not get on 
your bicycle and ride at a fast pace, hour after hour, up 
hill and down. You should understand, however, that 
it is only overzvork that you are being cautioned against, 
and that both moderate exercise and severe exercise 
taken for short periods are beneficial to the heart, as 
well as to other parts of the body. 

Tobacco injurious to the heart. Tobacco sometimes 
damages the heart until it has a quick, weak, and flut- 
tery beat. Coaches and trainers will not allow athletes 
to smoke, because smoking weakens both the heart and 
the other muscles. The question of the effects of to- 
bacco on the body we shall discuss in more detail in a 
later chapter (page 338). 

The heart injured by headache remedies. A number 
of drugs commonly used (among them phenacetin, ace- 
tanilid, and antipyrin) will relieve headaches. The prac- 
tice of taking these drugs for headaches and colds is 
dangerous ; for they all weaken the action of the heart. 
They should be taken only when prescribed by a physi- 
cian, and no good physician will prescribe them often 
for the same person ; for treating a headache in this way 



THE HEART AND THE LIRCULATIOIV 20I 

is not finding and removing the cause of the trouble, 
but is drugging the body so that the pain will not be 
felt. 

The effects of alcohol on the heart and blood vessels. 
Alcohol is thought to be one of the causes of hardening 
of the arteries, a disease in which the walls of the 
arteries become weak and brittle. Certainly it is true 
that apoplexy, which is caused by the bursting of a 
blood vessel in the brain, is more common among users 
of alcohol than among abstainers. Alcohol also in some 
cases weakens the heart by causing its muscle cells to 
change to fat, and sometimes in beer drinkers there is 
the additional trouble that the working cells of the heart 
are buried in a great mass of fat that must be lifted and 
moved every time the heart beats. When one realizes 
that in germ diseases everything depends on the heart's 
keeping at work until the body has had time to over- 
come the germs that are attacking it, the disastrous 
effects of alcohol or of anything else that weakens the 
heart are more easily understood. As will be explained 
in later chapters, alcohol usually brings about its evil 
in an indirect rather than in a direct way (page 355). 

Digestive troubles and the heart. When the digestive 
organs are out of order, the stomach sometimes becomes 
filled with gas and presses upward, thus cramping the 
heart and causing it to have a most uncomfortable feel- 
ing and a pounding and irregular beat. The diges- 
tive system, of course, should be given proper treatment 
in cases of this kind, but if this is done, there need be 
no alarm about the heart itself. Often, however, the 
heart is damaged by germs that are carried to it in the 
blood from infections of the intestine, and any one who 



202 KEEPING THE LAWS 

has trouble of any kind with his heart should consult a 
physician at once. 

QUESTIONS 

What must be carried to the cells and away from them ? 
How is this carrying done ? What is the movement of the 
blood through the body called ? What is an artery ? What 
is a vein ? What is a capillary ? How does the blood pass 
from an artery into a vein ? 

Describe the heart. Explain how the heart forces the 
blood through the body. Where are the valves in the heart 
and what is their use ? Trace the circulation of the blood 
from the right auricle back again to the right auricle. 

Of what is the blood composed ? Of what is the plasma 
composed ? What is the function of the red corpuscles ? of 
the white corpuscles ? What is the source of the lymph ? 
Explain how the lymph acts as a middleman between the 
cells and the blood. Describe the lymphatic vessels. What 
is their function ? What and where is the thoracic duct ? 

Why is the care of the heart so important ? What is the 
most common cause of injury to the heart ? How does over- 
exercise affect the heart ? At what age is the heart especially 
likely to be injured by overexercise ? Name some games that 
put a great strain on the heart. 

What effect has tobacco on the heart ? Name some drugs 
that are commonly used as headache remedies. What effect 
have these drugs on the heart ? How do they relieve a head- 
ache ? What effect does alcohol probably have on the blood 
vessels? What effect has alcohol on the heart ? When is the 
bad effect of alcohol on. the heart especially likely to show 
itself ? What effect does indigestion sometimes have on the 
heart? What should a person who has trouble with his 
heart do? 



CHAPTER SIX 



RESPIRATION 



Fill a bottle with boiled water and one with unboiled 
water, and arrange growing beans in them, as is shown 
in Figure 49. The bean with its roots 
in unboiled water will grow for a consid- 
erable time — as long as the mineral mat- 
ter in the water will provide it with food 
materials. The roots of the plant in the 
boiled water will quickly die and the 
whole plant will then wither, because 
the roots no longer send the water up to 
the leaves. 

Why is it that the roots in the boiled 
water die .'^ The answer is simple. The 
boiling of the water drives the oxygen out 
of it, and without oxygen the cells of 
neither plants nor animals can remain 
alive. 

The object of respiration. The first object of respiration 
is to take oxygen into the body. Of food, we have enough 
stored in the body to maintain life for a number of days, 
or, in some cases, even for several weeks. As to 
oxygen, however, the body leads a hand-to-mouth 
existence ; for though the air is more than one fifth 
oxygen, there is not enough of this gas in the body to 
keep us alive for more than two or three minutes 
after breathing has stopped. While we sleep, there- 
fore, we must keep on breathing in oxygen ; sit as quiet 
as we may, we must still keep on taking it in ; and when 
we walk or run, we do it taking in oxygen as we go. 

The second object of respiration is to give off carbon 

203 




Fig. 49. 



204 



KEEPING THE LAWS 




Fig. 50. 



dioxid from the body. Carbon dioxid is a waste gas that 
is all the time being formed in the cells and carried by 

the blood to the lungs, 
to be breathed out into 
the air. It is formed 
not only in the body, 
but where wood, coal, 
oil, or gas is burned, 
and it is sometimes 
found in coal mines, 
where it is known to 
the miners as ''choke 
damp." 

The chest, showing the position of The CavitV Of the 

the heart and lungs. ^-l^ ^ t'i. 'a. r 

^ chest. The cavity of 

the chest contains the heart and the lungs. This cavity 
is inclosed by the ribs and sternum, and is separated 
from the abdominal cavity below by a thin cross-parti- 
tion called the diaphragm. In breathing, the chest cav- 
ity is enlarged by lifting the ribs upward and outward, 
and by pulling the diaphragm downward. 

The trachea and the lungs. The trachea has in its 
walls stiff rings of cartilage that hold it open so that the 
air can pass freely through it to and from the lungs. 
At its base the trachea divides and sends a great branch 
to each lung. Within the lungs these branches divide 
again and again, until finally they end in little, thin- 
walled air sacs. The branches of the trachea are called 
the bronchial tubes, and the lungs have a light, spongy 
texture because they are composed chiefly of these tubes 
and of the air sacs in which the tubes end. 

The changes in the air in the lungs. The walls of the 



RESPIRATION' 



205 



air sacs are very thin, and great numbers of small blood 
streams constantly flow through the capillaries in them. 
The oxygen of the air that we take into the lungs 
passes into the blood through the walls of the sacs, and 




air sacs 



bronchial tube 

Fig. 51. The lungs. 

the carbon dioxid that is in the blood passes out into the 
air that is in the sacs, and is then breathed out of the 
lungs. The air in the bmgs, therefore, loses oxygen and 
gains carbon dioxid, and the blood takes in oxygen and 
gives up its carbon dioxid. 



206 



KEEPING THE LAWS 




These changes take place very rapidly in the lungs, 
for the capillaries are so numerous that they cover more 
than one third of the surface of the air sacs, and all the 
blood in the body goes through them in a little over a 
minute. 

Injury done to the respiratory organs 
by dust. Nearly all the diseases of the 
air passages and lungs are caused by 
germs. Dust wounds and injures the 
Fig. 52. A s m a 1 1 delicate lining of these parts, and makes 

bronchial tube and the . 

air sacs in which it it easy for gcrms to gam an entrance 
^^^s. into the tissues. The majority of work- 

men in certain industries, such as metal grinders, pot- 
ters, and workers in cotton and woolen mills, die of 
pneumonia, tuberculosis, and other respiratory diseases. 
This is due to the multitude of 
tiny wounds continually being 
made in the walls of the air 
passages by the sharp dust 
and fine fibers with which the 
air of many factories and mills 
is laden. Much can be done 
to make dusty trades more 
healthful by using water in 
operations where dust is 
formed, by hoods and air 
blasts that suck up the dust 

from machines, and by the Fig. 53. a workman wearing a 
1 . ,. mouthpiece to protect himself 

workmen wearmg appliances f,om dust. {From a photograph 

to protect themselves from the ^y^^^ Massachusetts state Board 




dust. 



of Health.) 



Sweeping without raising a dust. In many states 



RESPIRATION- 



207 




dry sweeping of school buildings and of other public 
buildings is forbidden by law, because it stirs up great 
quantities of dust, which then remains floating in the 
air for hours. The best method of cleaning public 
buildings, as well as private homes, is the vacuum pro- 
cess. When this cannot be used, wet sawdust, a sweep- 
ing compound, or something 
else effective should be em- 
ployed to keep down the dust. 
One device that is sometimes 
used is a can attached to the 
handle of a broom and so ar- 
ranged that it keeps the broom 
moist with kerosene or water. 

. Fig. 54. Adustlessbrush. The 

The floor brush shown m Fig- back of the brush is hoiiow and 
ure 54 is very satisfactory for is filled with kerosene, which 

J ^y: •! • slowly trickles down and keeps 

SWeepmg, and parattin oil is the bristles moist while the sweep. 

extensively used in making up ing is being done, 
floor dressings and sweeping compounds. This oil may 
be purchased for ten cents a quart, or at a lower price 
in larger quantities, and it gives an excellent polish to 
floors and furniture. Sawdust moistened with it makes 
a very satisfactory sweeping compound, and a cloth 
dampened with it is the best thing for removing dust 
from furniture and for cleaning doors. 

Gaseous impurities in the air. In many houses small 
quantities of gas are constantly escaping from the pipes, 
and often this leaking of gas is allowed to run on 
for weeks and months before the pipes are repaired. 
Breathing this gas, especially if it is water gas, is most 
injurious to the health. Another most harmful practice 
is the use of gas and oil stoves that have no pipes to 



2o8 KEEPING THE LAWS 

carry aMTay the fumes ; for it is ruinous to the health to 
breathe the poisonous gases that come from them. 

The effect of tobacco on the respiratory organs. To- 
bacco smoke is hot and irritating and often causes sore 
tongue and *' smoker's sore throat." When the smoke is 
inhaled into the lungs a sooty deposit which must cer- 
tainly be injurious is left on the walls of the bronchial 
tubes. When smoke is exhaled through the nose it has 
a tendency to cause catarrh and injures the sense of 
smell. The nicotin that is taken into the blood, either 
by partially paralyzing the nerve centers that control 
the breathing muscles, or by its effect on the muscles 
themselves, causes the shortness of breath with which 
every smoker who has tried to take part in athletic sports 
is familiar. 

QUESTIONS 

Why will a plant die if its roots are in boiled water ? What 
is the first object of respiration ? Why can a person live a 
long time without eating, but only a few minutes without 
breathing ? What is the second object of respiration ? 

What organs are in the cavity of the chest? By what is 
the chest inclosed ? How is the chest cavity enlarged in 
breathing ? Describe the trachea and its branches. How do 
the bronchial tubes end ? Explain the changes that take 
place in the air in the lungs. 

Why is breathing dust dangerous ? What may be done to 
keep down dust in factories? How may buildings be swept 
without raising a dust? Why should leaks in gas pipes in 
houses be carefully looked after ? Why is it injurious to use 
gas or oil stoves that have no pipes to carry away the gases ? 
Discuss the effects of tobacco on the respiratory organs. 



CHAPTER SEVEN 

VENTILATION 




Fig. 55. Move your bed out into the open air if it is possible for you to do so. 

In '1758, during a rebellion of the native soldiers in 
India, one hundred and forty-six Englishmen were shut 
up overnight in a room that had but a single window. 
When morning came, only twenty-three of them re- 
mained alive. After the battle of Austerlitz, three 
hundred prisoners were crowded into a cavern. In a 
few hours two thirds of them were dead. Many other 
instances are on record of people who have perished 
when shut up in closets, vaults, or the holds of ships. 
Most persons have read of some of these instances, and 
practically every one takes care to keep out of places 
where he is likely to perish because his supply of air 
fails. 

209 



2IO KEEPING THE LAWS 

It would seem, however, that many persons are like 
the kind-hearted old gentleman who could not bring 
himself to cut his dog's tail off all at once, and so cut 
off an inch each morning until the tail was gone ; for 
while these people object most decidedly to killing their 
bodies all at once with bad air, they do not seem to 
mind killing them a little at a time. Perhaps they do 
not realize what they are really doing, but the damage 
is constantly being done, nevertheless ; for they go to 
churches, lecture halls, and theaters where the air is 
so foul that it gives them headaches; many persons 
sleep in rooms with windows and doors so tightly 
closed that the sleepers must breathe the same air 
again and again ; children often cover their heads with 
the bedclothes and do not get a breath of fresh air all 
night long; and many schools and factories are so 
badly ventilated that the health and the working power 
of those in them are continually being undermined. 
The whole subject of ventilation is, therefore, of the 
very greatest importance, and in this chapter we shall 
take up the study of why we need fresh air and how 
to get it. 

Enough oxygen usually in the air. About one fifth 
(21 per cent) of the air is oxygen, and the remainder is 
nearly all nitrogen. The nitrogen is not used in the 
body, but is simply breathed into the lungs and breathed 
out again unchanged. The oxygen is taken into the 
blood and carried through the body to the cells. Air 
that has been breathed once has lost about one fourth 
of its oxygen, and where people are crowded together 
as the English were in the ** Black Hole of Calcutta," 
the oxygen in the air becomes exhausted. We can live, 



VENTILATION- 



21 r 



however, on 15 or even on 12 per cent of oxygen, 
and under any ordinary conditions the trouble with 
the air we breathe is not with the amount of 
oxygen in it. 

The carbon dioxid problem. Carbon dioxid is given 
off into the air from the lungs, and too much of it in 




Fig. 56. An outdoor lesson in geography. {After Ayres) 

the air is poisonous to us. It was long supposed that 
this was the chief trouble with indoor air, — that the 
paleness and lack of strength noticed in those who lived 
without good ventilation were due to carbon dioxid 
poisoning. All our rules for ventilating buildings have 
been laid down with the idea that we must bring in 
large quantities of fresh air (3000 cubic feet per hour 
for each person) to keep the carbon dioxid from be- 
coming too abundant in the air that we breathe. This 
is still a good rule to follow ; for it has not yet been 
proved that breathing large amounts of carbon dioxid 
week after week is not injurious to the health. Re- 
cently, however, it has been proved that in ventilation 



212 



KEEPING THE LAWS 




other questions besides the amount of carbon dioxid in 
the air tpust be considered. 

Dry air injurious. In rooms heated by stoves, radi- 
ators, or hot-air systems, the atmosphere becomes too 
dry, unless special arrangements are 
made for moistening it, — drier, in 
fact, than is the air in the Desert 
of Sahara. Since dry air quickly 
evaporates the sweat from the skin 
and cools the body, people often 
heat such rooms up to 75 or 80 de- 
grees, because they feel cold at lower 
temperatures. 

Living in a hot, dry atmosphere of 
this kind is injurious to the eyes, and 
it makes people subject to colds; it fig. 57. a home-made 
causes nervousness, also, and a child humidifier - a paii with 

2i Strip of cloth aiTanged 

in a dry, overheated schoolroom is for feeding the water up 
restless and has difficulty in keeping ^^^ ^f'""^ '' evaporate 
his mind on his work. Vessels of 
water should therefore be kept in furnaces and on stoves 
and radiators; and in school buildings heated with hot 
air, arrangements should be made to moisten the air be- 
fore it is discharged into the rooms. It is economy to 
give attention to this point ; for moist air feels as warm 
at 65 degrees as dry air at 75 degrees; in some school 
buildings as much as a 10 per cent saving in fuel has 
followed the installation of devices for moistening the 
air. 

A moist atmosphere and overheating. When the tem- 
perature of moist air rises much above 70 degrees, it 
gives us a hot, suffocating feeling, similar to that 



VENTILATION 213 

which one has on a warm, sultry summer morning. The 
explanation of this is that the moisture in the air keeps 
the sweat from evaporating, and there is a layer of hot, 
wet air surrounding the body like a shell. In crowded 
buildings, therefore, where the air is wet from many 
people breathing it, a proper temperature is very im- 
portant. It ought not to fall below 65 degrees, for then 
the people will be chilly ; and it ought not to run above 
70 degrees, for then the people will become hot and un- 
comfortable, some of them will develop headaches, and 
many of them will catch cold when they step out into 
the cool outside air. 

The necessity for motion in the air. In hot weather, 
and in warm and wet indoor atmospheres, it is most 
important that there be air currents to break up and 
blow away the hot, moist air blankets that surround us. 
How important such air currents are, is shown by an 
experiment that was carried out in England. In this 
experiment, a group of students were closed in a small 
room and watched through a glass in the door. At 
first they were laughing and joking, but soon they began 
to show signs of distress. Formerly it would have 
been concluded that they were suffering from a lack of 
oxygen or were being poisoned by carbon dioxid. The 
real trouble, however, was the overheating and the mois- 
ture in the air, as was proved by the fact that when an 
electric fan was started in the room, the students be- 
came comfortable again without the introduction of fresh 
air. 

Setting indoor air in motion. In public buildings the 
air often becomes close and the temperature rises after 
meetings have been in progress for some time. In such 



214 



KEEPING THE LAWS 




cases a great deal can be done towards keeping the 
audience comfortable by opening a few windows, so 
that part of the heated air will escape and currents will 
be set up through the building. 
In the Chicago schools, every 
window in every schoolroom is 
thrown wide open three times 
a day to allow the wind to 
sweep out the stale air in the 
buildings and to break up and 
blow away the envelopes of 
moist air from about the bodies 
of the pupils. Practices like 
this should be followed every- 
where. A few minutes de- 
voted to flushing out a school- 
room and going through a few 
resting and stretching exer- 
cises are by no means to be counted as lost, for the 
pupils return to their work with new vigor and zeal. 

It is well to understand also that the health of many 
workers could be improved and their working power 
greatly increased by providing them with electric fans 
during the hot summer weather. Many factory owners 
who have put in ventilating systems have found that the 
increased amount of work accomplished by the laborers 
in the factory far more than paid the cost of putting in 
and operating the system. This is what we should ex- 
pect, for every one knows the difficulty of working in 
an overheated, stifling atmosphere, and how bracing 
and invigorating a current of air is on a hot, oppres- 
sive day. 



Fig. 58. A humidifier for use 
behind a radiator. 



VENTILATION 



215 




Fig. 59. An open-air schoolroom in Sacra- 
mento, California. The inclosed room is 
used only in bad weather. 



Disagreeable odors in crowded rooms. In crowded 
and heated rooms, odors always arise that cause head- 
ache and a feeling of faintness in persons who are sen- 
sitive to them. A low 
temperature makes 
these odors much less 
noticeable, and a cur- 
rent of fresh air 
through the room not 
only sweeps away the 
odors themselves, but 
also refreshes the 
people and destroys 
the effects of the odors on them. Persons who are 
troubled with symptoms of illness w^hen they attend 
public meetings can sometimes escape the difficulty by 
arranging for a seat near a ventilator or window, or 
where a current of air from an open doorway will blow 
across them. It is probable that ''crowd poisoning'' 
is nothing but the effect of the overheating and of the 
odors that are usual in buildings where many people are 
assembled. 

Open-air schools. In Oakland, California, during the 
winter of 1910-191 1, an open-air school was in operation. 
In this school the children did regular work, and they had 
no special feeding or rest periods. Yet during the first 
half year no child in the school failed to gain in weight, 
and the average gain was 3.70 pounds; in the regular 
school building the average gain was 2.36 pounds. The 
children in the open-air school were free from colds, 
while, as usual, the children in the indoor school at times 
suffered from them. Most noticeable of all, however, 



2l6 



KEEPING THE LAWS 



was the wide-awake, energetic way in which the open-air 
pupils kept at their work. Day after day they finished 
their tasks without becoming tired, and by the end of 
the year all of them had advanced one grade, several of 




Fig. 6o. An outdoor classroom at Williamsburg, Virginia. When the 
children become tired indoors, classes are taken to this building for a recitation. 
There were only 20 days during the winter of 1911-1912 on which this outdoor 
classroom was not used. 

them had advanced two grades, and one boy had done 
two and one half years' work in the one year. 

In many places open-air schools have been established 
for sick children, with the idea of nursing them back to 
health rather than of advancing them in their school 
work. In these schools the pupils are fed and have 
long rest periods, and only light school work is done. 
Experience has shown, however, that in the open air 
the children throw themselves into the work so eagerly 
and their minds are so clear that even in outdoor schools 
that give only half the usual time to study, the pupils 
advance as rapidly as they do in an indoor school 
where they spend the whole day over their books. 



VENTILATION- 



217 




Fig. 61. Open-air classes held on the roof of 
the Horace Mann Elementary School, Teach- 
ers College, New York. 



Why, then, should not boys and girls who are in good 
health, as well as those who are sick, be in schools where 
they can master their work with the greatest ease and 
at the same time build up their bodies by breathing out- 
door air ? The time 
has come when each 
community must an- 
swer this question. 
In mild climates and 
in warm weather, 
there is certainly no 
reason for going to 
the great expense of 
trying to get the right 
kind of air indoors, 
when nature has filled 
all outdoors with exactly the kind of invigorating air 
that we need. 

Outdoor sleeping. In recent years thousands of out- 
door sleeping porches have been built in our country. 
Without a doubt the health is greatly benefited by 
passing in the open air the many hours that we 
spend in sleep. The only point that needs to be re- 
membered in moving outdoors is that the warmth of 
the body must be kept up ; that man moved into houses 
to protect himself from the cold and wet, and when 
he moves out of them again he must have clothing that 
will keep him warm and dry. If this point is looked 
after, the more time we spend outdoors the better. 
Therefore, move out into the outdoor air to sleep if you 
can, and if you cannot do this, open wide the windows 
of your bedroom and let the outdoor air come to you* 



2i8 KEEPING THE LAWS 

QUESTIONS 

What two gases make up the greater part of the air ? Which 
of these gases is used by the body? Under what conditions 
may the oxygen supply of the air become exhausted? 

What is carbon dioxid ? How much fresh air is supposed 
to be needed by each person in a building ? Why does dry 
air cause a sensation of chilliness ? What bad effects follow 
living in a dry atmosphere ? Is there any method of moisten- 
ing the air used in your school building or in your home? 
Explain how it works. 

Why does one easily become overheated in a moist atmos- 
phere? Describe an experiment that proved the importance 
of keeping the air in motion. Mention some ways by which 
air currents may be set up in buildings. In what way have 
factory owners been repaid for the cost of installing and 
operating ventilating systems? 

What effects have the odors of crowded rooms on certain 
persons? What may be done to make these odors less notice- 
able? 

Give an account of the open-air school at Oakland, Califor- 
nia. For what purpose are open-air schools used in many 
places? What advancement do the pupils in these schools 
make in their school work? In outdoor life what point must 
be kept in mind ? 



CHAPTER EIGHT 

ADENOIDS AND COLDS 




Fig. 62. Adenoids sap the strength so that any one who is suffering from 
them has very little chance of being the best athlete in the school ; they dull the 
mind so that the victim of them rarely stands at the head of his class. 



Among the most common of all the ailments that 
afflict the inhabitants of the temperate and frigid re- 
gions of the earth, are colds and certain other troubles 
of the nose and throat. These maladies, of course, are 
not so severe as many other diseases, but certainly they 
cause more inconvenience than all our other lesser sick- 
nesses combined. It is true also that they often weaken 
the body and lay the foundations for other serious diffi- 
culties. People lack the general understanding of these 
diseases that they ought to have, and in this chapter we 
shall therefore make a study of them. In order that 
we may do so more intelligently, we shall first consider 
the structure of the nose and throat. 

The chambers of the nose. The air passes through 
the nostrils into the nasal chamber's. These long, nar- 
row passages are about three quarters of an inch wide ; 

219 



220 



KEEPING THE LAWS 




Fig. 63. A cross-section of the 
nasal chambers, showing the bones 
(a, b, and c) that stand out in the 
pathway of the air. The mucous 
membrane hning the chambers is 
shown in white. 



they extend up into the head about as high as the level 
of the eyes, and they run back and open into the throat 
behind the mouth. They are 
separated from each other by 
a very thin, bony partition. 
On the outer wall of each 
chamber are three curved and 
rolled-up bones that stand out 
in the pathway of the air (Fig. 
63). The whole interior of 
the nasal chambers is lined by 
the same skin-like mucous 
membrane that is found in the 
mouth and throat. This is 
kept moist by a sticky sub- 
stance called mucus. 

The air warmed and cleansed in the nose. The air in 
the nose comes in contact with the lining of the chambers, 
and is drawn in among the bones that stand out in the 
nasal passages. In this way the air is warmed, and the 
dust and germs in it are caught on the moist, sticky 
mucous membrane that lines the cavities and covers the 
bones. The ftinction of the nose in respiration is to protect 
the throat and lungs from cold andfi'om dust and germs. 

Troubles in the nose. Sometimes the thin partition 
between the two sides of the nose becomes bent so that 
it closes one of the nasal chambers; sometimes the 
bones in the nose enlarge until they interfere with the 
breathing and prevent the proper drainage of the nose; 
and in a considerable number of persons, swollen and over- 
grown portions of the mucous membrane, called nasal 
polypSy block the air passages. In all such cases, the 



ADENOIDS AND COLDS 



221 



Eustachian tube 
soft palate 

position of 
' adenoid 
tonsil 



obstruction in the nose ought to be removed by a physi- 
cian who understands how to do the work. If this is not 
done, the breathing will be interfered with continually, 
and colds and chronic catarrh are likely to be the result. 
The throat. The throat is a funnel-shaped cavity 
which curves backward and downward around the base 

of the tongue. 
At its bottom are 
two openings, one 
leading to the 
stomach and one 
leading to the 
lungs. In front, 
a little flap-like 
structure, the soft 
palate, hangs 
down from above 
and partly sepa- 
rates the throat 
from the mouth. 
Above and behind 
the soft palate 
are two openings 
which lead into 
the nose, and high up in the walls on either side of the 
throat are the mouths of the two Eustachian tubes, 
which are small passageways that lead to the middle 
ears (Fig. 64). In the walls of the throat are four 
tonsils, which we shall describe in some detail. 

The tonsils. One small tonsil lies in the back of the 
tongue ; one is high up in the back wall of the throat ; 
and the other two lie in the side walls of the throat. 




Fig. 64. The nasal passages, mouth, and throat. 



222 



KEEPING THE LAWS 




Fig. 65. A tonsil. 
A part of the ton- 
sil is cut away to 
show a crypt. 



These structures are composed of loose, spongy tissue, 

and leading down into them are small openings, or crypts, 

which are formed by folding the mucous membrane down 

into deep Httle pockets (Fig. 65). Germs grow in these 
pockets and cause disease. In many cases 
of chronic infection of the tonsil there is 
no swelling or sensation of pain. In many 
other cases (cases of tonsillitis), the tonsils 
are greatly swollen and have pus in them. 
In some persons, especially children, they 
are always enlarged, and they may be so 
swollen that they block the throat and 
interfere with the breathing. The tonsil 
which is most commonly enlarged is the 

one in the back wall of the throat, and the spongy, 

swollen, whitish mass of soft tissue into which this tonsil 

changes is called an adenoid, or 

adenoid growths. 

The symptoms of adenoid growths. 

In moist climates one fourth of the 

children may have adenoids. The 

most easily recognized symptom of 

them is mouth breathing. If the 

throat is entirely blocked by them 

and the tonsils also are enlarged, 

the mouth will be kept open so wide 

that any one will notice that the 

child is a mouth breather. If the 

throat is only partly filled, the child 

may keep his mouth open only a little, and the mouth 

breathing may not be noticed at all except when the 

child has a cold or is asleep. After an adenoid has been 




Fig. 66. Adenoid in the 
throat seen from the front, 
{^Afier Wingrave.) 




ADENOIDS AND COLDS 223 

growing for some time, the upper teeth begin to turn 
forward; the face is puffed out under the eyes; the 
eyes have a strained look and are drawn down at the 
inner corners ; the Hps thicken ; the upper Hp shortens 
and is turned out ; there is often a white 
line running down from the corner of 
the nose marking off the division be- 
tween the cheek and lip ; and the whole 
face has a dull, stupid look. 

In many cases of adenoid 2:rowths, ^ , a ^ ,. 

•^ ^ o » YiQ, 67. Adenoid 

the germs work their way up the Eusta- growth that has been 
chian tubes and cause earache, which removed. One half 

, . - . natural size. (After 

is an almost certain symptom or them, wingrave) 
They also interfere with speech, and any 
one who " talks through his nose " or has difficulty in 
pronouncing his words clearly, probably has his nasal 
passages blocked by them. A child with this trouble 
usually snores, and in bad cases sometimes gasps and 
struggles for breath during sleep. 

Besides these symptoms of adenoid growths, there are 
certain other effects that often go with them. Sometimes 
children who have them are very restless and nervous, 
and are unable to keep their attention fixed on any one 
thing. Often they are stupid at their books and fall 
behind in their school work. Usually the digestion is 
disordered from swallowing the multitudes of germs 
that come from the adenoid and tonsils. Often the 
chest is narrow and the child is undersized, — some- 
times two or three years smaller than he should be. 
Another effect of adenoids, very noticeable in some 
cases, is a fretful, quarrelsome, and seemingly perverse 
disposition, — a lack of self-control and a tendency to 



224 KEEPING THE LAWS 

fly into a rage at the slightest provocation. This 
causes the victim to make trouble for his parents, for 
his teacher, and for all who have anything to do 
with him. 

The remedy for adenoid growths and infected tonsils. 
The only thing to do for adenoids and infected tonsils 

is to have them out at once. 
They can be removed by a 
slight operation, and in thou- 
sands of cases such an opera- 
tion results in an improvement 
in the condition of the child 
that is almost miraculous. One 
sixteen-year-old boy gained 
fourteen pounds in three weeks 
after having his adenoid and 
tonsils removed; and it is a 
common thing for a child 
^„ , ^ .^, whose adenoid CTowths have 

Fig. 68. An adenoid face. ^ 

been taken out to make a 
sudden increase in height and weight and to renew his 
interest in his school work. It is also worthy of note 
that many of the boys in reform schools and many of 
those brought before the courts for offenses against the 
law, lose all desire to engage in wild pranks when they 
are freed from adenoids. Removing adenoids is not a 
cure for all the dullness and bad conduct in the world, 
but it removes a stumbling-block that is hindering the 
progress of thousands of children who are by nature 
intelligent and well disposed. 

The evil consequences of waiting to outgrow adenoids. 
Usually, but not always, adenoids disappear by the time 




ADENOIDS AND COLDS 225 

a person is grown. ^ It must not be thought, however, 
that their evil effects disappear with them ; for if the 
nostrils are not used in breathing, the nasal chambers 
and the upper part of the face do not grow as they 
should, and the person is left with narrow air passages, 
protruding upper teeth, a short, thick upper Up, and 
often with a catarrh and a swollen condition of the nasal 
mucous membrane that will remain with him for life. 
Neglected adenoids spoil the beauty of the face for all 
time, and it is estimated that three fourths of all deaf- 
ness is due to them. Any one who advises waiting to 
outgrow adenoids is giving the worst advice possible. 
They ought to be removed, and this ought to be done be- 
fore they interfere with the growth of the bones of the 
nose and face. 

Colds. Colds are caused by germs that live on the 
mucous membrane of the nose and throat. They may 
be divided into two classes, — epidemic colds and chronic 
colds. Epidemic colds are caused by particularly 
virulent germs that are handed from one person to 
another until the disease sweeps the community. Most 
of us must either endure these colds or find a way to 
escape the germs that cause them — no easy thing to do 
when people who have colds insist on shaking hands 
with us and leaving with us a few millions of the germs 
with which they are so bountifully supplied. 

Spraying the nose with something that will kill the 
germs often helps to check a cold in its early stages. 

1 Trouble with adenoid growths has been reported in a child six weeks 
old and in a man of seventy years. They are by no means to be thought 
of as a disease of children only, for many cases are found in persons up to 
forty years of age. 



226 KEEPING THE LAWS 

A hot foot bath cannot kill the germs in the nasal pas- 
sages, but it helps to draw the blood away from the 
congested parts and assists in correcting the disturbances 
of the circulation that accompany a cold. It may also 
relieve to some extent the headache from which the 
victim of a violent cold suffers. A hot bath taken be- 
fore going to bed is even better than a foot bath for 
drawing the blood away from the congested parts. 

In chronic colds, the germs remain with the person 
all the time, growing only a little when he is in good 
health and offers a vigorous resistance to them, and 
springing into greater activity whenever the person gets 
his feet wet, becomes chilled, loses sleep, or does any- 
thing else that weakens his body and lowers its resist- 
ance to germs. A person with a cold of this kind is 
like a country invaded, but not conquered, by an enemy. 
At one time the inhabitants of the country drive back 
the foe and give themselves a breathing spell ; at an- 
other time the advantage is with those who make the 
attack. The patient's only hope of victory over his germ 
enemies is to build up his health until his body has suf- 
ficient fighting powers to drive them out completely. 
The following practices have been found important in 
giving the body strength for this work : 

Clearing out the nose and throat. In a great number 
of cases of chronic colds, the germs have a permanent 
home in the tonsils, in a mass of adenoid growths, in 
one of the nasal sinuses,^ or in some part of the nose. 

1 In the bones that inclose the nasal chambers there are a number of 
small hollows called sinuses (singular, sinus). Each one connects by a 
small opening with the nose, and they sometimes become the seat of 
chronic infections. Figures 63 and 64 show the locations of some of these 



ADENOIDS AND COLDS 



227 



In such cases the first step is to have removed all bent 
and enlarged bones in the nose, adenoid growths, in- 
fected tonsils, and anything else that protects the germs. 
This step we cannot afford to omit; for the battle 
against colds is a battle against germs, and we cannot 
hope to win the fight if the enemy is intrenched behind 
fortifications. It is important that these seats of infec- 
tion be removed for other reasons also ; for, as we shall 
see, many of our serious aihnents come from them 
(page 381). 

Getting enough fresh air. Experience with both 
consumptives and well persons shows that no one thing 
is more important than fresh air in giving the body the 
power to kill germs. Many persons suffer continually 
from colds because they live and work in buildings 
where the air is dry and overheated, and any one who 
wishes to free himself from a chronic cold must include 
fresh air in his plans. 

Taking cold baths. The practice of taking cold baths 
helps to give freedom from colds. Probably one way 
that a cold bath helps is by teaching the blood vessels 
in the skin to open and close promptly. When cold 
strikes the body, these vessels ought to close and thus 
keep the blood in the inner parts where the heat of the 
body will not be lost. Then, when the cold is removed 
from the skin, the vessels ought to open and allow the 
blood to come to the surface of the body. In some 
persons who are in bad health, the nervous system 
which governs these vessels does not control them 
properly, and the vessels in the skin may not close 

hollows in the bones, but they do not show the openings into the nasal 
chambers. 



228 KEEPING THE LAWS 

promptly enough to prevent the escape of the heat from 
the body ; or, at the slightest feeling of cold on the 
skin, the blood vessels may shut up tight and gorge the 
inner parts of the body with hot blood, while the skin is 
left cold and shivering.^ Cold baths help to train the 
vessels of the skin to open and close properly, and to 
keep the right amount of heat within the body. In 
beginning to take baths of this kind, intelligence and 
care are necessary ; otherwise much harm may be 
done. 

Drafts and colds. People are sometimes advised to 
pay no attention to drafts and to open the windows, 
no matter how cold the weather may be, because it is 
germs and not drafts that cause colds. Yet many 
persons know from their own experience that sitting in 
a cold draft does cause them to sneeze, to feel chilly, 
and often to become actually sick. How can the idea 
that it is beneficial to the health to sleep where the 
wind will blow over you, be reconciled with the idea 
that a draft of cold air is dangerous } If motion in the 
air is desirable, why not have as much of it as possible } 

In the first place, it must be understood that drafts of 
cold air take the heat out of the skin, and that a person 
who is exposed to them should have sufficient extra 
clothing to enable him to keep up his body heat. This 
keeping up of the body temperature is fundamental in 
the preservation of the health, for the resistance of the 

1 It should be understood that in chills, such as we have in malaria or 
at the onset of grip or pneumonia, the difficulty is that the blood has been 
driven to the inner parts of the body, and the skin, where our sense of 
feeling is, no longer is warmed by the blood flowing through it. There is 
no lack of heat in the body, for often a person has several degrees of fever 
at the same time that he is having a chill. 



ADENOIDS AND COLDS 229 

body to germs is weakened at once by the loss of too 
much heat. Much damage may be done by compelUng 
school children who have been accustomed to hot rooms 
to sit in their ordinary clothing with the windows wide 
open on a cold day. 

In the second place, it must be recognized that persons 
who have chronic colds — those who are carrying a 
host of germs just ready to break through their resist- 
ance and put them to bed — are already sick. It must 
also be recognized that what is safe for a well person or 
for one accustomed to it, may be neither safe nor wise 
for a sick person or for one not accustomed to it. 

It may be possible, therefore, for a cold draft that 
would be harmless to a well person to cause a cold in a 
person who is already infected with the germs ; or per- 
haps it is better to say that a cold draft may make a 
chronic cold worse in such a person. It is not advisable, 
therefore, for a person who is weak or half-sick to 
expose himself suddenly to severe conditions. 

Training the body to endure ordinary exposure. A 
person who suffers from chronic colds needs to build up 
the strength of the body gradually; to accustom the 
vessels of the skin to cold baths gradually so that they 
will act properly instead of throwing him into a chill 
when a blast of cold air is felt; to clear the nasal pas- 
sages and the throat of obstructions ; and, in general, 
by degrees to bring the body back to where it will be 
able to stand ordinary exposure without injury and to 
kill the germs that are causing the cold. Any one who 
is always having colds ought, therefore, to begin to 
build up his health, and if he is wise he will get a good 
physician to guide him in this task. 



230 KEEPING THE LAWS 

Catarrh and bronchitis. Catarrh is a chronic cold in 
the head. Bronchitis is a chronic cold in the bronchial 
tubes. In both cases the body is kept poisoned by the 
germs that are growing in it. Like other chronic ail- 
ments, catarrh and bronchitis cannot be cured in a day, 
and often a climate that is unfavorable to the growth of 
the germs, or careful work by a skilled physician, is 
required to cure them at all. In aged persons bronchitis 
is particularly dangerous, and an old person with this 
disease should have the best of care. 

QUESTIONS 

Describe the nasal passages. What effect has the mucous 
membrane upon the air that passes over it? Name three 
troubles that may occur in the nose, and the remedy for them. 
Describe the throat. What is the soft palate? What and 
where are the Eustachian tubes ? 

How many tonsils are there ? Where are they ? Of 
what kind of tissue are the tonsils composed ? What is the 
cause of tonsillitis ? What are adenoid growths ? 

Give five symptoms of adenoids that show in the face. 
Give other symptoms and effects of adenoids. What is the 
remedy for adenoids and infected tonsils ? Mention some 
bad effects of allowing children to wait to outgrow adenoids. 

By what are colds caused ? Distinguish between epidemic 
and chronic colds. Give three ways by which the body re- 
sistance to the germs of cold may be raised. How does the 
practice of taking cold baths protect one from colds ? 
Explain how a cold draft may be injurious. What should a 
person who has a chronic cold do to bring his body back into 
normal condition ? 

What is catarrh ? What is bronchitis ? What bad effects 
have they upon the body ? 



CHAPTER NINE 

CLOTHING AND THE BODY HEAT 



M 


m- 


W-^l^^ 


^s^l 


m^^^W 


/y^HH 


'S^S^ 


M^^St 




mUSaS^^ 




Figs. 69 and 70. The object of clothing is to keep up the body heat. 

A MAN in the cold arctics loses much more heat than 
does a man in the warm tropics. Yet the temperature 
of the human body all over the world is the same. A 
man who is exercising violently produces five or six 
times as much heat as a resting man produces. Yet the 
temperature of the human body during exercise and rest 
is practically the same. Cold-blooded animals become 
warm or cold according to the temperature of their 
surroundings, but the warm-blooded animals, including 
man, keep their heat near a certain point whether the 
weather is hot or cold. In health the temperature of 
the human body varies from 98.8 degrees to about one 
and one half degrees below this point. 

The object of clothing. We take our clothing so much 
as a matter of course, that we often forget that the one 
great purpose in wearing it is to protect us from cold. 
It is true that it protects the body from wounds also, and 
we pay great attention to it because of its effect on our 

appearance ; but yet the fact that the inhabitants of the 

231 



232 



KEEPING THE LAWS 



oil 
gland 



epidermis 



touch 
corpuscle 



frigid regions are clad from head to foot in furs, while 
those who live in the tropics are often very scantily clad, 
shows that man put on clothing, just as he built houses, 
to protect himself from the weather. We ought not, 
therefore, to become so interested in the colors and the 
appearance of our clothing that we forget the real 
reason why it is worn. 

The necessity for a regulator of the body heat. To a 

certain extent we can regulate the heat of the body by 

wearing heavy clothes in winter and lighter clothing 

hair when the weather is hot. 

Yet we cannot regulate 
the loss of heat from the 
body by clothing alone ; 
for the temperature of 
the body must be kept 
constantly at one point, 
while the thermometer 
often runs up and down 
20 or 30 degrees in a 
single day. There must, 
therefore, be some deli- 
cate regulator that will 
govern the loss of heat 
from the body according 
to the changes in the 
temperature of the air. 
This work is done by 

Fig. 71. A section of the skin. \\\Q skin 

The structure of the skin. The skin is composed of a 
tough outer layer called the epidermis, and of a deeper 
layer of connective tissue called \kiQ dermis. The outer 




sweat fat m 
gland 
A section of the skin. 



CLOTHING Am) THE BODY HEAT 233 

cells of the epidermis are dead and are continually 
scaling off, but the cells in the lower part multiply 
and grow to take the places of those that are lost. 
The dermis contains the nerves of touch and great 
numbers of small blood vessels. Below the dermis is a 
layer of loose connective tissue in which a considerable 
quantity of fat is stored. This layer of fat helps to 
retain the body heat. 

Hair follicles and sweat glands. At certain points the 
epidermis is folded down into deep pockets called hair 
follicles, from the bottom of which the hairs grow. At 
other points sweat glands run dov/n from the outer sur- 
face of the epidermis and lie coiled in the dermis. The 
sweat glands are hollow tubes, the lower ends of which 
are surrounded by lymph. Water from the lymph soaks 
through the walls into the tubes and flows out of the 
mouths of the glands as sweat. 

The body heat regulated by the sweat glands and 
vessels of the skin. The temperature of the body is 
regulated by the sweat glands and the small arteries 
of the skin. During hot weather and when we do 
hard work, the sweat glands assist in cooling the body 
by pouring out sweat on the surface of the skin. The 
evaporation of the sweat cools the skin, just as alcohol 
cools it when allowed to evaporate from it. The ar- 
teries do their part of this work by controlling the 
amount of blood that comes into the skin. When 
the body is exposed to cold, these small arteries 
contract and keep the blood in the warm inner or- 
gans. When the body is heated, they relax and allow 
the blood to come to the surface, where it will be 
cooled. 



234 KEEPING THE LAWS 

The danger of chilling the body. Chilling the body 
disturbs the circulation by driving the blood from the 
skin and congesting the inner parts of the body. This 
makes us especially liable to be attacked by the germs 
of pneumonia, influenza, and colds. Since wet footwear 
takes the heat out of the feet, the wearing of rubbers 
when they are needed is a most important precaution in 
guarding against colds. 

Danger of overheating the body. Working in a hot, 
moist atmosphere is very exhausting, and it is almost 
impossible to keep up the health during the summer 
months unless we can have air currents to blow away 
the hot air from about the body. Often these can be 
secured by sleeping and working outdoors, by opening 
windows, and by the use of ventilators and electric fans. 
Some persons do not yet realize that from the standpoint 
of health it is as important to keep cool in summer as to 
keep warm in winter. Accordingly, they are willing to 
pay large sums to heat the rooms in which they live and 
work in winter, but are not willing to spend a small sum 
for ventilators and electric fans to be used during the 
heat of the summer. Just as being chilled in winter 
makes us liable to attacks of influenza and pneum.onia, 
so overheating in summer lowers our resistance to germs 
and makes us liable to attacks of diarrhea, dysentery, 
and other summer diseases. 

Suiting the clothing to the weather. Men who are 
brought into hospitals suffering from sunstroke are often 
found to be wearing heavy coats and undershirts, and 
thick woolen trousers. Little babies in hot summer 
weather are often covered with ''nettle rash" and "heat 
rash," because they are dressed in such heavy clothing 



CLOTH LYG AND THE BODY HEAT 



235 



that the skin is kept in an overheated condition. On 
the other hand, we sometimes see people going without 
wraps and overcoats when the 
weather is so cold that they could 
scarcely keep up their body heat 
with the heaviest clothing. What 
we need to remember is that the 
object of dress is to keep the proper 
amount of heat in the body, and that 
each person should wear clothing 
that will keep the body temperature 
at the right point. In the spring 
and fall, especially when the weather 
is changeable, it is important that the 
weight of the clothing correspond to 
the needs of the body. Because 
white reflects light and black absorbs 
light and turns it into heat, light- 
colored clothing is best for those 
who work in the hot sun. A wide- 
brimmed hat that will shade the neck 
and upper part of the back as well 
as the head is a further valuable 
protection when exposed to the hot 
sun. 

Bathing. One object of bathing is 
to cleanse the body. This we need 
not discuss. Bathing as it relates 
to health is mainly a question of the 
temperature of the water. Cold 
baths educate the vessels of the skin 
so that they learn to open and close 




Fig. 72. The air tem- 
perature on the woolen 
jacket is 70 degrees ; on 
the shirt-sleeve beneath 
the jacket, 79 degrees ; 
on the skin underneath 
the shirt, 90 degrees ; and 
on the hand, 84 degrees. 
The real outdoor tem- 
perature is 51 degrees. 
The clothed body has, 
therefore, 11 degrees and 
the unclothed body 33 
degrees temperature dif- 
ference to make up. 
{After a German chart 
displayed at the Dresden 
International Hygiene 
Exhibit, igii.) 



236 KEEPING THE LAWS 

quickly and thus regulate the body heat properly. The 
importance of having the blood vessels trained to do this 
is better appreciated when we remember that animals 
in the natural state must adapt themselves only to changes 
in the weather, while man often passes in a few seconds 
from an artificially heated building into an outdoor at- 
mosphere that is 30 or 40 degrees colder. When these 
quick changes from warm to cold air are made, the ves- 
sels ought to contract promptly and shut the blood off 
from the skin before too much heat is lost from the body. 

The training of the blood vessels through cold baths 
is of course mainly a work of training the nervous system 
which controls the vessels, and if a person is weak and 
out of condition, a cold bath may have about the same 
effect on his nervous system that a long race would have 
on the muscles of a person not accustomed to taking 
exercise. In beginning to take cold baths, therefore, we 
must use care. They ought to be begun with water 
that is only cool, the bath should be short, and after the 
bath the skin should be rubbed briskly with a rough 
towel. Colder water may be used as the skin becomes 
accustomed to it, but in no case should the water be so 
cold or the bath so prolonged that the reaction fails to 
come promptly. 

It is the opinion of some physicians that certain deli- 
cate persons are never able to take cold baths without 
injury ; that baths of this kind are injurious to any one 
who is in poor health or in a nervous condition, and that 
only those who are strong and in robust health can bear 
the shock of such a bath without injury. Others think 
that any one can train himself to take them with safety. 
This question we must leave to the physicians to decide. 



CLOTHING AND THE BODY HEAT 



237 



Alcohol and the body heat. In cold weather, taking 
alcohol causes a feeling of warmth, and men often take a 
drink to enable them better to endure cold. The feeling 
of warmth that is given by alcohol is deceptive. We 
feel cold when the blood has been shut off from the 
skin and warm when the hot blood from the inner parts 




Fig. 73. Captain Roald Amundsen, who discovered the South Pole. Because 
alcohol lessens both the endurance of the muscles and the power of the body 
to resist cold, none of it was used on the Amundsen expedition. 

of the body is flowing through the skin. Alcohol 
temporarily paralyzes the arteries of the skin and leaves 
them expanded. This allows the skin to become flushed 
with blood, and causes a sensation of warmth, but at the 
same time it allows the blood to be cooled and the body 
heat to be lost. When we are exposed to cold, the 
vessels ought to be contracted and we ought to feel 
cold. Hence to bring the blood into the skin so that 
the body heat will be lost is an unnatural and unsafe 
thing to do. Persons who use alcohol cannot endure 
cold so well as persons who do not use it, as the ex- 
perience of polar explorers proves. 



238 KEEPING THE LAWS 

Foods and the body heat. Eating protein foods (page 
284) increases the amount of heat produced within the 
body. Thus the heat production of a dog may be doubled 
by feeding it Uberally on meat, and even in the arctic 
winter the Eskimo hunter, by consuming great amounts 
of flesh, is able to sleep outdoors with no protection but 
his furs and a sled to shield him from the wind. Like 
the clothing, the diet should be adapted to the weather. 
During the winter larger amounts of heating foods like 
meat and beans should be eaten; in the summer, vege- 
tables, fruits, and grains should be more freely used. 

QUESTIONS 

What is the temperature of the body? What is the purpose 
of clothing? Why must the body have some means of regu- 
lating its heat? 

Name the two layers of the skin. Describe each. Describe 
a hair foUicle. Describe a sweat gland. What is the source 
of the sweat ? 

Explain how the heat of the body is regulated. In what 
two ways does chilling the body injure it ? How may wet feet 
injure the health? 

What is the effect upon the health of overheating the body ? 
Why are air currents especially important in summer? How 
may they be secured? Discuss the subject of suiting the 
clothing to the weather. At what seasons of the year should 
we be especially careful to change clothing according to the 
weather ? 

What do cold baths do for the vessels of the skin ? How 
should one unaccustomed to cold baths begin to take them? 

Why does taking alcohol give a sensation of warmth? 
What has been the experience of polar explorers in regard to 
the power of drinkers and of abstainers to withstand cold ? 



CHAPTER TEN 

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 

The work of the nervous system has always been a 
mystery to mankind. The ancient Greeks thought that 
the brain distilled 
some kind of vital 
spirit, or essence, 
which flowed out 
through the body in 
the form of a gas. 
If the brain were in- 
jured so that the 
supply of this spirit 
was cut off, or if the 
body were deeply 
wounded so that the 
vital spirit escaped, 
life came to an end. 

Today we know a 
great deal more than 
the Greeks knew 
about the nervous 
system, but our 
knowledge of it is yet 
far from complete. 
We know enough, 
however, to help us 
greatly in the care 

of the body, and in ^^^-74- The nervous system. 

this chapter we shall take up some of the facts concern- 
ing the nervous system that it is most important for us 
to understand. 

239 




240 KEEPING THE LAWS 

The parts of the nervous system. The nervous sys- 
tem is composed mainly of the b^nin, the spinal cordy 
and forty-three pairs of nerves that run out from the 
brain and the spinal cord to all parts of the body. 
It includes also many little masses of gray tissue, called 
ganglia (singular, ganglion\ that are found among the 
inner organs of the body, and a great network of nerve 
fibers that run among these organs. 

The function of the nervous system. The first func- 
tion of the nervous system is to control all the orgaizs a7id 
parts of the body. If the heart should beat fast when 
we lie down to rest and slow when we run ; if the sweat 
glands should pour out water on the skin when we are 
already freezing and stop work on the hot days of sum- 
mer; if the muscles moved how and when they 
pleased, so that they jerked the body aimlessly about; 
if all the organs worked without system or plan, so that 
each part of the body carried on its activities without 
regard to the rest of the body, we should not have a 
working machine at all, but only a collection of organs 
and parts. A ruler must, therefore, be set over the 
whole body to keep all the parts working together 
properly. This ruler is the nervous system. 

The second function of the nervous system is to act as 
the organ of the mind. This function we shall discuss 
when we take up the study of the brain. 

The nervous system composed of cells and fibers. The 
nervous system is made up of nerve cells and of nerve 
fibers. The nerve cells are larger than most of the body 
cells, and have a gray color. Most of the nerve cells are 
found in the brain and spinal cord, but a few of them are 
found in the ganglia, which are little balls of nerve cells. 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 24 1 

The nerve fibers connect the nerve cells with the 
other parts of the body. They have a gUstening white 
color, but each fiber has a gray central part which 
carries messages to and from the spinal cord and 
brain. This gray core of the fiber is a 
branch of a nerve cell, and we may 
think of the nerve fibers as long 
branches of the cells which run out to 
all parts of the body. The white nerves 
that we see in the body of an animal 
are bundles of nerve fibers. The finest 
nerves contain but a few fibers, and can 
be seen only with a microscope. The 
sciatic nervCy which runs to the leg, is 
the largest nerve in the human body. 
This is a flattened cord three fourths of 
an inch across. 

Motor and sensory nerve fibers. 
Some of the nerve fibers carry mes- 
sages from the brain and spinal cord 
that cause our muscles to move. These fig. 75. a nerve cell 

,, , . n^ r^ ^ n-i and nervc fiber. At the 

are called motor fibers. Other fibers i^wer end the attach- 
carry messages from the skin, the eye, ment of the fiber to the 

,1 1 ^1 i r ^1 1 1 .L muscle cells is shown. 

the ear, and other parts 01 the body to 
the brain. These messages cause us to feel, to see, to 
hear, and to understand the condition of all the parts 
of the body. They cause sensations in the brain, and 
the fibers over which they pass to reach the brain are 
called sensory fibers. 

The brain. The brain is a mass of very soft tissue 
weighing about fifty ounces and filling the cavity of the 
cranium (Fig. 17). It has three principal divisions, the 




242 . KEEPING THE LAWS 

cerebrum^ the cerebellum^ and the medulla oblongata, 
A general idea of the appearance of the different parts 
of the brain may be gained from Figure 76. 

convolutions ^^^^^^^^'^^^^J'^^^^'^'^ 




medulla oblongata ^^w cerebellum 
Fig. 76. The brain seen from the side, showing the three principal divisions. 

The cerebrum. The cerebrum makes up more than 
three fourths of the entire brain. It is divided by a deep 
groove into right and left hemispheres. The outside 
layer of the cerebrum is composed of nerve cells, and 
therefore has a gray color. To make more room for 
these cells the whole surface of the cerebrum is thrown 
into folds, or wrinkles, that are called convolutions. 

From the cells of the cerebrum a great network of 
fibers runs in all directions through the brain, and 
connects all its different parts with each other. Other 
fibers run down through the medulla into the spinal 
cord and connect the cerebrum with all parts of the 
body. Most of the motor fibers from the cerebrum are 
crossed in the medulla, so that the right side of the 
cerebrum is connected with the muscles of the left side 
of the body, and the left side of the cerebrum is con- 
nected with the muscles of the right side of the body. 

The function of the cerebrum. The gray outer layer 
of the cerebrum, is the seat of all intelligence. Without 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 



243 



it all sensations of light, sound, taste, smell, touch, heat, 
and hunger are lost. When it is removed, all power of 
moving the voluntary muscles is gone. The cerebrum, 
therefore, is the part of the brain that thinks and feels. 
It is the part that causes us to remember and to know, to 
love and to hate, to be glad and to be sad. The cere- 
brum decides what we shall do ; it sends out the mes- 
sages to the muscles when we wish to move ; and it 
governs the whole body. With- 
out its cerebrum an animal can 
live, but all its intelligence is 
gone. It still breathes and its 
heart continues to beat, but it is 
only a machine, knowing nothing 
of its own needs and of the 
world about it. 

The cerebellum. The cerebel- 
lum lies under the back lobes of 

the cerebrum. Its fimction is to ^^^^ ^^^ ^he cerebrum seen 
cause all the muscles to keep the from above, showing the hemi- 

proper tension^ and to assist in ^^ ^^^^* 
governing the muscles of locomotion. In walking, more 
than two hundred muscles are used in holding the body 
upright and in moving the different parts that are brought 
into action. Each of these muscles must contract 
with exactly the right force and at exactly the right time, 
or they will work against each other and the right 
movements will not be made. When the cerebellum is 
injured, all the muscles are weakened and relaxed, and 
the person loses control of the muscles that support the 
body and move the legs. This causes him to stagger 
and reel like a drunken man. 




244 KEEPING THE LAWS 

The medulla and the spinal cord. The spinal cord is 
about half an inch in diameter and eighteen inches long. 
Without the roots of the nerves that rise from it, it 
weighs about an ounce. It lies in the canal in the center 
of the spinal column and is securely protected by the 
bones about it. The enlarged upper end of the cord 
is the medulla. 

Both the spinal cord and the medulla are composed 
in large part of fibers that connect the brain with the 
different body parts. Some of these are sensory fibers, 
through which messages from the body are passed up 
to the brain. Others are motor fibers, over which 
commands from the brain pass down on their way to 
the different parts of the body. In addition, the medulla 
contains the centers which govern the heart and kings. 
When the cerebrum of an animal is removed, the intel- 
ligence is lost; when the cerebellum is injured, control 
of the muscles is lost; but when the medulla is injured, 
life at once ceases, because the beating of the heart 
and the breathing stop. 

Reflex action. Much of the governing of the body 
by the nervous system is done without thought. The 
messages, or nerve impulses, pass through the sensory 
nerve fibers into the nerve cells, pass on through the 
branches of these cells into other cells that are touching 
them, and come out again by way of a motor nerve. 
An action that is caused in this way is called a reflex 
action, and it can best be explained by an example. 

Cross your legs, and strike yourself just below the 
kneecap with the edge of your hand. If you strike the 
right place, you will start messages to the spinal cord. 
These, without any thought whatsoever on your part, will 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 



245 




pass into the motor nerves and down into the muscles of 
the leg. The muscles of the leg will then contract and 
cause the foot to jerk. A reflex action is an involuntary 
action caused by an impulse that 
starts in a soisory Jiei^ue, It is 
very different from the voluntary 
actions that are caused by im- 
pulses which start in the cere- 
brum and pass out to the muscles 
when we wish to move some part 
of the body. Practically all the 
governing of the internal organs 
of the body is carried on by re- 
flexes. 

Reflexes acquired through 
practice. The reflexes that we 
have been discussing are natural 
reflexes ; we are born with them. 
There is another set of reflexes 
that comes to us through prac- 
tice. The skilled swimmer does 
not think how he shall move his 
arms and legs ; in boxing, the hands move without 
thought and almost faster than the eye can follow; 
the telegrapher does not think about the combination 
of dots and dashes that spell out a word, but reads 
the message he is sending, and his hand does the rest. 
In the same way, all of us every day do a great part 
of our work without thought. We walk without giving 
attention to the muscles and parts which we must 
move; we open our mouths to take in food without 
thinking ; we chew our food without noticing that we 



Fig. 78. The ball starts from 
the hand and comes back to it 
again. The impulse that causes 
a reflex action starts from the 
outer end of a sensory nerve 
and comes back to the muscle 
or gland that is thro\\Ti into 
action. It does not start from 
the brain. 



246 KEEPING THE LAWS 

are chewing; we write without conscious thought as 
to the shape of the letters. All these • things we 
have repeated so often that we have learned to do 
them without thought. 

Acquired reflexes and education. A very important 
part of education consists in establishing the right re- 
flexes, so that without thought we shall do the more 
common things of life properly. A young person who 
is learning to write ought to learn to hold his pen in the 
right way and to shape the letters correctly, so that the 
right reflexes will be formed and the writing question 
settled for life. He ought to learn to group his words 
properly and to give the right inflection in reading, so 
that these matters will attend to themselves thereafter. 
He ought to take great care to say '* please " and ** thank 
you " ; to modulate his voice so that it will not become 
loud and strident when he is talking eagerly ; to take 
off his hat and to rise to his feet when he should do 
so; and to do all the other things that go to make 
up pleasant manners; for no one will ever have good 
manners who has not established reflexes that will make 
him able to do what he ought to do naturally and with- 
out thought of his actions. 

When you are learning to do anything, the great 
thing is to do it right, so that you will form a reflex 
action of the right kind. Then as long as you live 
the part of your conduct and work that depends on 
this reflex will take care of itself and you will be 
free to expend your energy on the new problems that 
arise day by day. The object of the training that 
you are receiving at home and in school is to make 
for you a set of tools with which to carry on the work 



J 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 247 

of your life. If you wish to be a good workman, you 
must, first of all, manufacture for yourself a good set 
of tools. 

Habits. Habits are really reflexes that we form by 
repeating acts, and just as physical habits can be formed, 
so can moral habits, and habits of the mind, be formed. 
All kinds of habits are formed most readily in youth, 
and it is seldom that long-established habits are broken 
after the age of twenty-five or thirty. Indeed, it is dif- 
ficult at any time of life to break a habit that has once 
been thoroughly established. It is because this is true 
that young people are so constantly urged to form habits 
of honesty, neatness, accuracy, and cleanliness. An 
investigation at Harvard University has shown that the 
students who do high-grade work in the schools of law, 
medicine, and engineering are students who did their 
work well before entering these schools ; that it makes 
little difference what subjects they have studied previ- 
ously, but that it makes a great deal of difference whether 
they have formed the habit of learning their lessons 
regularly and thoroughly, or of going through them in a 
lazy and careless way. The trifler in the lower grades 
of school is usually a trifler still in the high school, and 
very few high-school drones ever become capable and 
industrious college students. 

Just what it is that makes the nervous system want to 
keep on doing things in the same way, we shall not 
attempt to explain, but it is a well-known fact that what 
a man does in youth determines very largely what kind 
of person he will be in later life. If in youth he forms 
habits of dishonesty and laziness, he is almost certain 
to develop into an unreliable and unsuccessful man. 



248 KEEPING THE LAWS 

If in youth he forms habits of honesty, industry, and 
promptness, he will probably become a trusted and a 
successful man. Rip Van Winkle was always intending 
to stop drinking, but when a glass was offered him, he 
would say : '' We won't count this time '' ; so the time to 
begin his new life never came. There are many persons 
who have good intentions and are meaning to get down 
to work in the future, but their habits keep them loiter- 
ing on in the same old ways. The importance, therefore, 
of forming correct habits in youth can hardly be over- 
estimated. 

QUESTIONS 

Name the principal parts of the nervous system. Give two 
functions of the nervous system. Of what is the nervous system 
composed ? Describe a nerve fiber. What are gangha ? What 
are motor nerve fibers ? sensory nerve fibers ? 

Describe the brain. Describe the cerebrum. How is the 
cerebrum connected with the other parts of the brain? with all 
the parts of the body? What is the function of the cerebrum? 
What part of the cerebrum is the seat of intelligence? Can 
an animal live if its cerebrum is removed? 

Where is the cerebellum? What is its function? What effect 
upon a person has an injury to the cerebellum ? 

Describe the spinal cord and the medulla. Why does injury 
to the medulla cause death? 

What is a reflex action? Give an example. Describe the 
course of the impulse in a reflex action. Describe the course 
of the impulse in a voluntary action. What is an acquired re- 
flex ? How may right reflexes be established ? Why is it im- 
portant to establish this kind of reflexes ? 

What is a habit? Why is it so important to establish right 
habits in youth? What did the investigation at Harvard 
University show in regard to the foundation of good scholarship ? 



CHAPTER ELEVEN 

THE CARE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 




Fig. 79. There is no truth in the idea that a person can have too much 

natural sleep. 

Suppose that you decide to raise your hand. The 
hand comes up. Can you explain exactly what made it 
rise ? It is in reality a very complicated action, and to 
make sure that you understand it we will go through the 
different steps in it with you. 

First of all, you decided to raise your hand. This was 
an act of the mind. Then nerve impulses, whatever 
they may be, were started out from the brain. These 
impulses traveled down through the medulla and spinal 
cord, passed out into the nerves of the arm, and finally 
entered the muscle cells. This caused the muscle cells 
to contract and lift the arm. The muscles did the work, 
but the nervous system decided what was to be done and 
caused the muscles to do it. 

In all our other activities we find that the nervous 
system plays a guiding and controUing part. The regu- 
lation of the body heat ; the secretion of the digestive 

249 



2 so KEEPING THE LAWS 

juices ; the excretion of the wastes ; all these processes, 
as well as every movement that we make, are under the 
control of the nervous system. We must, therefore, keep 
the nervous system in health ; for when it goes wrong 
in its work, the whole body suffers. Fortunately for us, 
our nervous systems are splendidly built, and on the 
whole they do their work faithfully and well. There 
are, however, certain points in the care of them in which 
many persons fail, and we ought to have an understand- 
ing of these points. 

Sleep necessary for the nervous system. The cells of 
the nervous system must have sleep to build themselves 
up for further work, and so far as we know they are the 
only part of the body that needs sleep. The amount 
of sleep needed varies greatly in different persons 
and in persons of different ages. A little baby may 
sleep as much as twenty-two out of the twenty-four 
hours. At six months of age he sleeps about sixteen 
hours. At seven years of age a child should sleep eleven 
or twelve hours ; at ten or twelve years of age, at least 
ten hours. Older persons should take the amount of 
sleep that they find best for them. Occasionally a per- 
son is found who keeps in good health on four, five, or 
six hours of sleep. Other persons must have eleven or 
twelve hours. Each one should go to bed early enough 
not to feel sleepy when getting-up time comes ; for there 
is no truth in the idea that one can have too much 
healthy sleep.^ 

Are you still tired and sleepy when you waken in 

^ Illness and poisons absorbed from the intestines cause drowsiness. 
When a person is sleepy from one of these causes, the condition is, of 
course, an unnatural one. 



THE CARE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 25 I 

the morning ? Are you pale and languid and do you drag 
yourself through your work ? If you are, it may be 
because you are cutting your sleep short ; for there are 
thousands of people who are starving for sleep as truly 
as other people are starving for food and fresh air. If 
you have fallen into a habit of staying up late in the 




Figs. 80 and 81. A change for a time to a different kind of occupadon is rest- 
ful to the nervous system. 



evenings, break this habit and go to bed early. A 
runner or a baseball team that has been losing sleep 
has not the slightest chance of winning from others of 
equal ability who have had a sufficient amount of it. 
This is because the nervous system, when it lacks sleep, 
is out of condition and cannot control the muscles as 
it should. 

Rest necessary to the health of the nervous system. 
A great amount of nervous energy is required to drive 
the more than five hundred muscles of the body, and 
when we study or do other brain work, it is the nervous 
system that is called into action. In either physical or 



252 KEEPING THE LAWS 

mental work, therefore, we tire the nervous system, and 
we ought not to continue either until our cells are poi- 
soned with the '' fatigue toxins " that appear in the body 
in cases of exhaustion. 

Factory workers who are forced to speed themselves 
up to machines, and little children in schools where the 
recitation periods and the school days are too long, 
suffer from fatigue and cannot do their best work. 
Many earnest, ambitious individuals who are trying 
to do the very best work of which they are capable, 
injure themselves and lower their working power by 
keeping their nervous systems exhausted.^ In general, 
it has been found best to work hard during regular 
working hours, and then to have rest periods when 
something entirely different is done. In schools there 
should, therefore, be rest and play periods for young 
children, and older persons ought to work certain hours 
every day and then for a time have a different kind of 
occupation. 

Fresh air helpful in resting the nervous system. A 
nerve fiber from a frog will carry impulses all day 
without fatigue if it is exposed to the air so that it 
can take in the oxygen that it needs. If the supply of 
oxygen be cut off from it, however, it soon becomes ex- 
hausted. Undoubtedly children in open-air schools can 
do more work without becoming tired than can children 
in indoor schools, and it is the belief of those who sleep 

^ In some factories it has been found that the workmen can accomplish 
more when they work eight hours than when they work ten hours, be- 
cause when they work the longer hours they are always tired and never in 
good condition. The number of hours that is best for a working day 
must, of course, vary with the kind of work and with the kind of people 
who are doing the work. 



THE CARE OE THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 253 

in the open air that they need about an hour's less sleep 
than they require if they sleep indoors. These facts in- 
dicate that fresh air is an aid in preventing exhaustion, 
and that tired nerve cells are more quickly rested and 
built up when the body is given plenty of outdoor air. 

A peaceful mind necessary for health. In our study 
of the nervous system we must always keep in mind 




Fig. 82. Both the child's pleasure at seeing the toy and the man's pleasure at 
seeing the child's happiness affect the mind, and through the mind affect the 
body. 

that it has the double function of governing the body 
and of acting as the organ of the mind. It is perhaps 
economical to have these two different kinds of work 
done by the same system, but this plan has its drawbacks 
as well as its advantages; for the condition of the 
mind greatly affects and sometimes interferes with the 
proper regulation of the body. 

Good news or bad news may greatly change the beat- 
ing of the heart. A toy that pleases a child will cause 
his whole body to tingle with pleasure, and will cause 
impulses to pass out to his muscles that will make him 



254 KEEPING THE LAWS 

laugh and clap his hands. Food that is pleasing to the 
taste, or even the sight or smell of food, will cause the 
"mouth to water," which is another way of saying that 
I it causes the digestive juice to flow from the salivary 

'' glands. Experiments on a dog have shown that the 

sight and smell of food, even though the food does not 
reach the stomach at all, causes an abundant flow of the 
digestive juices in the stomach; while in a dog that was 
made angry by having a cat placed near it when it was 
eating, the flow of the juice in the stomach was inter- 
fered with for two whole days. All these facts show 
that anger, sorrow, and worry interfere with the proper 
action of the body; that the mind greatly affects the 
body; and that a cheerful, quiet, hopeful mind is neces- 
sary for health. 

At the same time, we must realize that sickness is a 
real thing, and that when it comes upon us we cannot 
depend upon the mind alone to restore us to health. 
When a child has diphtheria, only antitoxin will save its 
heart from being poisoned, and when tuberculosis attacks 
the lungs, good food, fresh air, and rest, as well as 
cheerfulness and hope, are needed if the body is to 
make a winning fight against the germs. When the 
kidneys have been poisoned by scarlet fever or by the 
use of alcoholic drinks, nothing that we can think about 
them will make them able to throw the wastes out of 
the body as a pair of sound kidneys are able to do. 
The mind cannot take poisons out of the body ; it can- 
not kill germs that get into the body. These things 
the body must do for itself, and all that the mind and 
the nervous system can do is to help to keep each or- 
gan of the body at work at its particular task. 



THE CARE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 255 

Nevertheless, it is true that the nervous system rules 
the whole body ; that when the nervous system goes 
wrong, the whole body goes wrong; and that just as 
food, fresh air, exercise, and rest are necessary to the 
health of the body, so a peaceful, hopeful mind is 
necessary in order that the nervous system may remain 
in health and regulate all the body parts properly. 

QUESTIONS 

What part of the body needs sleep? How much sleep 
should a baby have ? a child seven years old ? a child twelve 
years old ? an adult ? 

Why is rest necessary for the nervous system? Under what 
conditions of work and rest can a person do the best and 
most work? Give three facts indicating that open-air life pre- 
vents exhaustion of the nerve cells. 

What is the effect of joy, hope, and other pleasant emotions 
on the nervous system? What is the effect of anger, sorrow, 
or worry ? What mental state is necessary to the health of the 
body? Mention some experiments with animals that prove 
this. Can the mind take poison out of the body? Can it kill 
'germs? How can the mind help the body to do these things? 



CHAPTER TWELVE 

THE EYE 

Many of the messages which travel up the nerves to 
the brain are started within the body itself, and cause 
sensations that tell us about the condition of the body. 
Examples of sensations of this kind are sleepiness, 
fatigue, weakness, faintness, hunger, thirst, and nausea. 

Others of the messages that come to the brain are 
started in the nerves by things that are outside the body, 
and these messages bring us information about the out- 
side world. The nerves that carry these messages are 
the nerves of sights hearings touchy taste, and smell. 
Seeing, hearing, touching, tasting, and smelling are the 
five special senses, and the eye, the ear, the nose, the 
mucous membrane of the mouth, and the skin are the 
special sense organs. 

The brain dependent on the sense organs for informa- 
tion. Through the special sense organs we learn all that 
we know of the world about us, and when anything in- 
terferes with the proper working of these organs, much 
information that ought to come to the brain fails to 
reach it. Many children who are thought to be stupid 
are dull, not because they have slow brains, but because 
their eyes and their ears are not keen in gathering the 
information that is necessary to make them intelligent. 
We must learn to care for our sense organs, especially 
for our eyes and ears, for without them the brain sits in 
idleness, and is no more certain of what is the right thing 
to be done than is the commander of an army whose 
scouts bring him no news of the enemy's movements. 

The nerves in the eye stimulated by light. Light is 
waves in the ether which fills all space, and the eye 

256 



THE EYE 



257 




tear 
gland 



nasal cavity 



Fig. 83. The tear gland and the 
duct that carries the tears to the 
nose. 



is an instrument so constructed that when light enters 
it the nerves of sight are stimulated and messages are 

started to the brain. These 
messages give us a series of 
pictures of the world about us, 
from which we learn about 
the color and the form of ob- 
jects, about their movements 
and their nearness to us. From 
these pictures much of our 
knowledge comes. Much of 
the pleasure also that we have 
in the world comes from them ; 
for just as music starts messages from the ear that give 
pleasure to the mind, so beautiful objects start messages 
from the eye that are pleasing to us. Years ago, a great 
man of science suggested that we should have concerts of 
beautiful colors for the eyes as well as concerts of music 
for the ears. Such concerts have already been attempted. 
The protection of the eyes. The eyes are protected 
from blows by the deep sockets in which they lie, and 
by cushions of fat on which they rest and turn. They 
are protected from dust and sweat, and screened from 
light, by the eyelids, the eyelashes, and the eyebrows. 
In the outer corner of each of the upper eyelids is a 
small gland which secretes the tears. These flow across 
the eyes to the inner corners, and run down a little duct 
into the nose. In their passage across the eye, the tears 
wash away dust and germs. In the eyelids are glands, 
very similar to the glands that oil the hair, which pour 
out oil along the edges of the eyelids. Sometimes these 
glands become diseased, and the secretion from them 



258 



KEEPING THE LAWS 




dries and forms scales around the roots of the eyelashes. 
The trouble in cases of this kind is that germs are grow- 
ing in the gland. Dropping a solution of boric acid (as 
much as will dissolve in water) into the eyes will help to 
prevent the growth of the germs. 

The muscles of the eye. The eye is moved about by 
six muscles. The back ends of these muscles are at- 
tached to the eye sockets. 
The front ends are at- 
tached to the ball of the 
eye. These muscles can 
turn the eye in, out, up, 
or down. It is not nec- 
essary always to turn the optic nerve 

head toward an object Fig. 84. The muscles that move the eye. 

which we wish to see ; for the eye muscles can turn 
the eye toward it while the head is at rest. 

The muscles that move the eye work in pairs against 
each other, and if one muscle of the pair be too strong 
for the other, the eye will be turned too far in the direc- 
tion in which the stronger muscle is pulling. For ex- 
ample, if the outer muscle be stronger than the inner 
one, the eye will be turned out, instead of looking 
straight forward ; or if the inner muscle be too strong for 
the outer, the eye will be turned in, instead of looking 
straight forward. A person whose eyes behave in this 
way is said to squint, or to be cross-eyed. The trouble, 
if taken in time, can be remedied by a skilled oculist. 

The structure of the eye. The eye has a tough, white 
outer coat called the sclerotic coat ; a dark middle coat 
called the choroid coat ; and lining the back two thirds 
of the eye, a delicate inner coat called the retina. The 



THE EYE 



259 



front part of the sclerotic coat, which is called the 
cornea, is transparent like glass, and we look out, or 
rather the light comes in, through a little window that 
is like a small round watch crystal on the front of the eye. 



sclerotic coat 

cornea — // W \ WTK — choroid coat 

1 1 — I X — aqueous Ml 

II' \ humor ll 1 

optic nerve 



pupil- 




muscles 



Fig. 85. A diagram showing the structure of the eye. 

Inside the eye is found a circular, clear structure 
called the lens, which is fastened by ligaments to the 
choroid coat. The lens and the ligaments that sup- 
port it divide the eye into a small front chamber and a 
large back chamber. The front chamber is filled with 
a watery liquid, called the aqueous humor. The back 
chamber contains a clear jelly-like substance called the 
vitreous humor. The nerves of sight enter at the back 
of the eye and spread out in the retina. The light 
reaches these nerves and starts messages in them by 
passing in through the cornea, the aqueous humor, the 



26o 



KEEPING THE LAWS 



lens, and the vitreous humor, and striking against the 
retina. 

The iris and the pupil. The front part of the choroid 
coat is called the iris. This shows through the clear 
cornea, and the person is black-eyed, 
brown-eyed, or blue-eyed according 
to the color of his iris. In the center 
of the iris is a circular opening called 
the piipiL Through this the light 
passes into the eye. Muscles in the 
iris regulate the size of the pupil ac- 
cording to the brightness of the light. 
Examine your own eyes after being 
in a bright hght and again after 
being in a weak light, and you will 
have no trouble in seeing the differ- 
ence in the size of the pupils. 

The image formed by the lens on 
the retina. If you were to focus a 
camera on a group of objects, as for example a house 
with trees surrounding it, and then look at the ground 
glass in the back of the camera, you would see an image 
of the scene that lies before the camera. The image 
would be upside down, and the right and left sides 
would be reversed, but the house and the trees would 
be there, each with its own colors, and each in the right 
position in the group. The lens in the front of the 
camera forms this image by gathering up all the light 
that comes into the camera from each of the objects, 
and bringing the rays together so as to form a picture of 
all the objects. 

In the same way, the lens of the eye forms on the 




Fig. 



86. The iris and 
the pupil. 



THE EYE 



261 



retina images of the objects that we see. In the eye, 
as in the camera, the images are upside down, but they 

are there in their proper col- 
ors, and the different objects 
have the right sizes and the 
^^^b>;^^7:?tj;:^^^ right positions in regard to 

each other. This picture of 
whatever we are looking at 
starts impulses in the nerves 
of sight to the brain, and 
when these messages are re- 
ceived by the brain, we form 
judgments about the size, 
color, and form of the ob- 
jects, and say that we see 
the objects. By means of 
the images in the eyes we 
can judge also of the dis- 
'^-^^t=^\^^j^:^M^ tances of objects from us, of 

their movements, and of their 
smoothness or roughness. 

The shape of the lens 
changed in looking at far and 
near objects. In looking at 
a near object the lens of the eye must be rounded up, 
and in looking at a far object it must be flattened. This 
rounding and flattening of the lens is done by little mus- 
cles in the eye which loosen and tighten the ligament 
that supports the lens. If you should fill a small sack 
with water and then pull on the ends of the sack, you 
would flatten it; and if you should then stop pulling 
on the ends of the sack, the sack would of itself round 




Fig. 87. The lens in the camera 
forms inverted images on the ground 
glass in the back of the camera. 



262 KEEPING THE LAWS 

up. So in the eye, when the ligament is loosened, the 
lens becomes rounder. This change in the shape of 
the lens is called the accommodation of the eye, be- 
cause by it the eye is accommodated to the nearness 
or farness of the object. 

Near-sightedness, far-sightedness, and astigmatism. In 
a camera, if you move the lens too far forward or back- 
ward, the image becomes blurred. So in the eye the 
image will not be clear and the vision will not be dis- 
tinct, unless the lens is the right distance from the retina. 

The eyes of some persons are too long from front to 
back. In such eyes the lens is too far from the retina 
and the image is indistinct. These persons see near 
objects better than far objects, and they are therefore 
said to be near-sighted. Any one who bends over his 
book in reading, or who holds his book less than twelve 
inches from his eyes, is near-sighted. 

The far-sighted eye, on the other hand, is too short 
from front to back, and the lens is too close to the 
retina.^ Persons with eyes of this kind see distant ob- 
jects best, and they are said, therefore, to be far-sighted. 

In other eyes, the curvature of the cornea is not the 
same in all parts; that is, some parts of it are flatter 
than other parts. Rays of light that pass through this 
uneven cornea cannot all be brought to a focus at one 
point, and a clear image is impossible in such an eye. 
This trouble is called astigmatism. It is a very com- 
mon defect in the eye and may be found alone, or along 
with either near-sightedness or far-sightedness. 

Necessity for a clear image in the eye. If a sharp, 

1 In some cases of near-sightedness and far-sightedness the trouble may 
be in the shape or the refracting power of the lens. 



THE EYE 



263 



clear image is not formed on the retina of the eye, seri- 
ous troubles follow. The muscles in the eye keep pull- 
ing and working to try to change the shape of the lens 
so that the vision will be clear; in reading it is a strain 
on the attention to tell what letters are in the words, 
and, in general, it makes all work that requires close 
attention more difficult. This overworks and deranges 
the nervous system, and soon the health of the whole 




Figs. 88 and 89. There are 5,000,000 school children in the United States 
who need glasses. 



body is injured. Two of the most common symptoms 
of eyestrain are headache and trouble with the digestion, 
often accompanied by dizziness and vomiting. 

The importance of spectacles. It is often said that 
the great amount of close work that people now do 
injures their eyes, and it is insisted that the eyes of 
school children in particular are damaged by the work 
that they are required to do. There is doubtless some 
truth in this statement, but it is also true that many eyes 
are naturally defective. Examination of the eyes of the 
Indians who come direct from the plains to Hampton 
Normal School, in Virginia, shows that 34.6 per cent 



264 KEEPING THE LAWS 

of them are in need of glasses to improve their vision 
or to relieve eyestrain. 

It is estimated that there are 5,000,000 school children 
in the United States who have defective eyes. Nothing 
can be done for these eyes except to put glasses before 

c u p r 



p m T F 3 



O U D 3 

Fig. 90. You should be able to read the upper line at a distance of 30 feet, 
and the two lower lines at a distance of 20 feet. 

them that will cause clear images to fall upon the 
retinas. We shall not attempt to explain the kinds of 
glasses that are used to correct the different kinds of 
eye trouble, but it is an easy matter for a good oculist 
to select the kind of lens that each eye needs. Test 
your vision with the letters given on this page, and if 
you have reason to believe that you need glasses, try to 
get them ; for if glasses are put on in time, many cases 



THE EYE 



265 



of astigmatism and near-sightedness can at least be kept 
from becoming worse, while if these troubles are neg- 
lected, the shape of the eyes may be so spoiled that the 
person will have trouble with them all his life. 

Importance of a good light while working. To read or 
to work by a dim light is very injurious to the eyes. Too 




Fig. 91. A good light while reading is important. 

bright a light also is injurious, especially if one faces it, 
and a flickering Hght of any kind is bad. In writing one 
ought to sit so that the light comes over the left shoulder; 
for then the shadow of the hand will not interfere with 
the work. Facing a window in the daytime, or a lamp 
at night, is hard on the eyes. Reading on into the 
twilight is a great strain on the eyesight, and one ought 
not to seat himself carelessly too far from the light when 
doing close work at night. 

One difficulty when the light is too dim is that the 
work is kept so close to the eyes that there is a great 
strain on the muscles that turn the eyes inward; for the 
closer an object is to the eyes, the more must the eyes 



266 KEEPING THE LAWS 

be turned inward to focus both of them on it at the same 
time. Keeping the work close to the eyes is especially 
injurious in the case of little children ; for their eyes are 
soft and easily pulled out of shape, and the muscles 
tugging at the eyes to turn them inward spoil the shape 
of the globe of the eye and cause astigmatism. To pre- 
vent this, schoolbooks for young children ought to be 
printed in type large enough so that the children will 
not have to keep the books close to their eyes while 
studying, and schoolrooms should be well lighted. The 
rule in erecting modern school buildings is to allow from 
one sixth to one fourth as much space for windows as 
there is floor space in the room.^ Ribbed glass used in 
the upper sashes assists very greatly in spreading the 
light evenly over the room. 

Resting the eyes helpful and overtaxing them injurious. 
When we have been reading or doing other close work 
for some time, it benefits the eyes greatly to stop for a 
few moments and look at a distant object, or to gaze into 
the distance without looking at anything in particular. 
Reading on a moving train or a street car quickly tires 
the eyes, because the distance between the book and the 
eye is contantly changing, and the muscles in the eye 

1 Some of the legal requirements of one state in regard to the light- 
ing of schoolrooms are as follows : Schoolrooms shall be lighted from one 
side only and the glass area shall not be less than one sixth of the floor area, 
and the windows shall extend from not less than four feet from the floor 
to at least one foot from the ceiling, all windows to be provided with roller 
or adjustable shades of neutral color, as blue, gray, slate, buff, or green. 
Desks shall be so placed that the light will fall over the left shoulders of 
the pupils, but for left-handed pupils the desks may be so placed that the 
light will fall over the right shoulder. Blackboards must be dead black 
in color, and windows must be kept clean. 



THE EYE 267 

are kept busy changing the shape of the lens. Reading 
while lying down is also hard on the eyes, because the 
book or paper is often held in such a position that the eyes 
must be strained to see it. If you read while traveling 
or while lying down, rest your eyes occasionally and stop 
the reading before the eyes have become fatigued. 

QUESTIONS 

How are the eyes protected from blows ? from light and 
dirt? Where are the glands which secrete the tears? Of 
what use are the tears ? What is the cause of scales on the 
edges of the eyelids ? Explain how the eye is moved. What 
causes a person to squint? Name the coats of the eye. 
Describe the cornea ; the lens ; the aqueous humor ; the 
vitreous humor ; the iris ; the pupil. In what part of the 
eye are the nerves of sight ? 

Explain how images are formed in a camera and in the 
eye. In what do the images in the eye start messages ? 
What judgments does the brain form from these messages ? 

How is the eye accommodated to near and far objects ? 
What causes near-sightedness? far-sightedness? astigmatism? 
What is the effect on one's health of a blurred image on the 
retina ? How many school children in the United States need 
glasses ? Why is it important, aside from improving the health, 
that glasses be worn by children who need them ? 

From what direction should the light come when one is 
working ? Why is it harmful to read or work by a dim light ? 
Why is work that is held close to the eyes especially harmful 
to little children ? How much window space should a school- 
room have? Why is it harmful to read on a moving train? 
while lying down ? 



CHAPTER THIRTEEN 

THE EAR 




Fig. 92. The light waves start impulses in the nerve of sight, and we see 
the lightning ; the sound waves start impulses in the nerve of hearing, and we 
hear the thunder. 

Doubtless you have seen a flash of Hghtning fall 
from the sky, and have stood and waited until the roll- 
ing of the thunder came to your ears. What was it 
that came to your eyes and caused you to see the 
lightning? It was waves in the ether. ^ What was it 
that came to your ears and caused you to hear the 
thunder ? It was waves in the air. Why can you not 
see the thunder ? It is because the eye is not af- 
fected by waves in the air; only ether waves can stimu- 
late the nerves of sight. Why is it that you do not 
hear the lightning ? It is because ether waves do not 
affect the ear ; only air waves stimulate the nerves of 
hearing. 

^ Ether is an invisible, elastic fluid that fills all space. Light, the elec- 
tric waves that are used in wireless telegraphy, and the X-ray are waves in 
the ether. They run with almost incredible speed, light traveling at the 
rate of 186,000 miles a second. Air waves are very much slower than 
ether waves, sound waves traveling only about 1 120 feet a second. 

268 



THE EAR 



269 



mastoid 
cavity 



Through the car the confusion of air waves that 
comes from the instruments of an orchestra is trans- 
formed into music ; through it we are able to under- 
stand the thoughts of 
a friend when he, by 
speaking, sends a 
series of air waves to 
us across a room. 
In the whole body- 
there is nothing more 
wonderful than this 
instrument that has 
been given us to catch 
the waves in the air 
and carry their motion 
to the nerves of hear- 
ing, which lie deep in 
the bones of the skull. 




middle ear 



Eusta- 
chian kibe 



Fig. 93. Diagram of the ear. 



There are three main divisions of this organ, — the outer, 
the middle y and the inner ear. 

The outer ear. The outer ear is composed of carti- 
lage covered with skin. It catches the sound waves 
and turns them down a winding canal to the middle 
ear. When a dog, a horse, or a rabbit is listening, 
it holds up its ears to catch the sound waves, and 
a man sometimes puts his hand behind his ear to 
help in catching the sound and turning it into the 
ear. 

The middle ear. The middle ear is a little drum- 
shaped cavity in the bone of the skull. It is filled with 
air, and is connected with the throat by the Eustachian 
tube. At the inner end of the canal that leads inward 



2/0 KEEPING THE LAWS 

from the outer ear is a little membrane called the tym- 
panic memh^ane. This stretches like a thin skin across 
the bottom of the canal and separates the outer ear 
from the middle ear. 

The bone of the skull behind the middle ear is 
spongy and has a cavity in it which is called the 
mastoid cavity. This opens out, like a little chamber, 
from the middle ear, and when germs infect the middle 
ear they often reach the mastoid cavity also. This 
trouble is called mastoiditis. In cases of this disease 
there is always danger that the germs will find their 
way to the brain and cause an abscess in the brain. 

The bones of the ear. Across the middle ear a chain 

of three small bones stretches from the tympanic 

membrane to the inner ear. These 

malleus ....-£-% bones are called from their shape the 

incus — [\f ,, ., \ ^u • / MX 

* K I vb^ malleus (hammer), the tnciis (anvil), 

stapes I ^-^2 \ /' \ jy 

^Lj^/lj^ and the stapes (stirrup). The malleus 

tympanic -^K IS fastened to the tympanic mem- 

membrane W brane ; the stapes fits into an opening 

„ ^u t, • that leads into the inner ear : and the 

Fig. 94. The chain ' 

of bones of the ear incus is between the malleus and the 

connecting with the g^^ /pj q x ^f^^^ ^^ ^^^^ 

tympanic membrane. ^ ^ ^ ^ '^ ^ 

Studied the plan of the whole ear, we 
shall learn how these bones carry the motion of the sound 
waves from the tympanic membrane to the inner ear. 

The inner ear. The inner ear lies deep in the bone 
of the skull. It is exceedingly complicated in structure 
and we shall not attempt to explain it further than to 
say that it has three parts, — a central part called the 
vestibule^ a coiled part called the cochlea^ and three 
semicircular canals at the back that wind through the 



THE EAR 



271 



opening for stapes 
vestibule 
cochlea 




bone of the skull. The entire inner ear is filled with 
a fluid, and the fibers of the nerve of hearing end in 

such a way that when waves . . 

-' , ^ semicir- 

are set up in the fluid, the cular 
nerve endings are stimulated ^^^^^ 
and messages are started in 
them to the brain. 

How a sound wave starts 
a message to the brain. 
When a sound wave strikes 
the outer ear, it is turned 
down the canal leading to 
the inner ear; it then strikes 

against the tympanic mem- Fig. 95. The inner ear. The lower 

brane and starts it to swing- ^g^^e ^^^^^'^ the natural size of the 

J . ^, . ^ inner ear. 

mg out and in. This puts 

the malleus, the incus, and the stapes in motion, and 
the stapes is pushed in against the Hquid in the inner 
ear. This sets up waves in the liquid, and the beat- 
ing of these waves stimulates the nerves of hearing and 
starts messages to the brain. When these messages 
reach the brain, we hear the sound. 

If the waves in the air are large and strike violently 
against the tympanic membrane, so that large waves 
are set up in the fluid in the ear, we say that the sound 
is loud. If the waves are small, so that the tympanic 
membrane and the chain of bones swing gently to and 
fro, the nerves are stimulated only a Httle, and the sound 
is soft. Within the inner ear is a wonderful mechanism 
which is so arranged that a sound having one pitch will 
start messages in one set of nerves, and a sound having 
a different pitch will start messages in another set of 



272 KEEPING THE LAWS 

nerves. By this arrangement the brain is able to tell 
the pitch of the different sounds that come to it. 

Earache and running ear. Practically all ear troubles 
are in the middle ear and are caused by germs. These 
germs work their way from the throat into the ear 
through the Eustachian tube, and they grow in the 
lining of the middle ear and about the little bones, much 
as they grow in the nose when we have catarrh. 
Frequently, in diseases like colds, grip, scarlet fever, 
measles, and diphtheria, the ears become infected, and 
in these cases it is most important that a physician give 
them early and proper care. Often it is adenoids that 
start ear trouble, and in chronic cases of earache or 
running ears, adenoids should be looked for. 

It is not right to allow children to suffer needless pain 
from ear troubles, and they ought not to be left to out- 
grow them ; for a running ear already has a hole through 
the tympanic membrane, and the hearing is in danger 
of being lost. Nearly all deafness in older persons is 
due to the fact that when these persons were children, 
germs were allowed to grow in the ears until they dam- 
aged the tympanic membrane or the bones that carry 
the motion of the sound waves to the inner ear. Some- 
times the membrane or the chain of bones is broken 
down or destroyed. Sometimes the trouble is that the 
membrane is thickened and stiffened, or the chain of 
bones is stiffened at the joints until the movement in it 
is wholly or partly lost. Among grown persons about 
one third have the hearing affected in one or both ears. 
This could be prevented by attending to the ears at the 
proper time. 

Other points in the care of the ear. Quinine, if taken 



THE EAR 



273 



for a considerable time, may cause deafness, and this 
medicine, like other medicines, should be used only 
when prescribed by a physician. A blow on the side of 
the head is dangerous to the hearing ; for it may send 
so strong an air wave down the canal of the ear that the 




Fig. 96. Testing the hearing, 

tympanic membrane may be broken. Live insects in 
the ear cause great distress by buzzing and moving 
about. They should be drowned by pouring warm 
water into the ear. 

No one but a physician should attempt to remove 
objects from the ear, because an unskilled person in 
attempting to do so may injure the lining of the canal, 
or break the tympanic membrane. In the canal of the 
ear there is a bitter wax secreted to protect the ear from 
insects. Children sometimes form a habit of picking 
at their ears with the head of a pin or other object. 
This causes the lining to become inflamed and the wax 
to be secreted too abundantly. One physician has said, 
** You should never thrust anything smaller than your 
elbow into your ear,'* and another has added, ** Before 
you thrust your elbow into your ear you should wrap 
your coat around it." If wax accumulates until it be- 
comes troublesome, a physician should be consulted. 



2/4 KEEPING THE LAWS 

QUESTIONS 

Describe the outer ear. What is its use? Describe the 
middle ear. What separates the middle ear from the outer 
ear? What is the mastoid cavity? What causes mastoiditis? 
Name and describe the three bones of the middle ear. Where 
is the inner ear? Name its parts. With what is the inner 
ear filled? 

Where do the nerves of hearing end? Explain how a sound 
wave stimulates the nerves of hearing. What is the difference 
between a loud sound and a soft sound? Explain how it is 
possible for the brain to understand the pitch of a sound. 

How do germs enter the ear? In what parts of the ear do 
they grow? What is the most common cause of earache and 
running ears? What is the cause of nearly all cases of deaf- 
ness in grown persons? What per cent of adults have im- 
paired hearing? 

What bad effects have excessive doses of quinine? Why 
is a blow on the side of the head dangerous ? What damage 
may be done when an unskilled person attempts to remove 
objects from the ear? What is the use of the bitter wax in the 
ear? What damage may be done by picking at the wax in the 
ears? 



CHAPTER FOURTEExNT 



THE ORGANS OF TOUCH, TASTE, AND SMELL 

The sight and the hearing are especially important 
because they give us knowledge not only of near ob- 
jects, but also of objects that are far away. The sense 
of smell may also give us 




information of an object 
when it is at a distance; 
but in the main this sense, 
as well as the sense of 
taste and the sense of 
touch, is valuable because 
it enables us to judge of 
objects that are near at 
hand. 

There is not much that 
we can learn about any 
of these senses that is 
important from the stand- 
point of health. It is in- 
teresting, however, to 

know something of the way in which the messages that 
cause the sensations of touch, taste, and smell are started 
in the nerves, and to understand something of what we 
learn through these senses. In this chapter we shall 
therefore study the organs of touch, taste, and smell. 

Touch. The sense of touch is the most widely dis- 
tributed of all the senses, for we can feel through the 
skin on every part of the body. Through the sense of 
touch, even better than through the eye, we can learn 
the form of objects ; through it we can tell whether ob- 
jects are smooth or rough, whether they are hot or cold. 

275 



Fig. 97. A blind girl reading by sense 
of touch. 



2^6 



KEEPING THE LAWS 




Blind persons learn to read by passing the finger tips 
over raised letters, and persons who are both blind and 
deaf gain through the touch much of the information 
that comes to others of us through the eye and ear. 
The touch, therefore, is a sense that is not only at all 
times highly useful to us, but one that can be fur- 
ther educated and in time of 
need called into use to take 
the place of other senses. 

The endings of the nerves 
of touch in the skin. The 
dermis, or lower layer of the 
skin, is thrown up into little 
peaks qsXIqA papillce (singular, 
papilla) that stand up under 
the epidermis. Some papillae 
contain a great network of 
little blood vessels. Others contain a touch corpusclcy 
which is a little group of cells with a nerve fiber wind- 
ing about through it and ending in it (Fig. 71). Other 
fibers of the nerve of touch divide at the outer end into 
many little branches which end freely among the lower 
cells of the epidermis, or spread out into little saucer- 
like structures around the bases of 
some of these cells (Fig. 98). 

The nerves of touch are especially 
abundant in the fingers, lips, tongue, 
and tip of the nose, and in these places 
the sense of feeling is most acute. 
You can perform some interesting ex- 
periments by thrusting two or three 
pins through a piece of cork or wood 



Fig. 98. A nerve fiber ending 
around the bases of the cells in the 
epidermis. 




Fig. 99. 



TOUCH, TASTE, AND SMELL 277 

(Fig. 99) and trying how far apart you must place them 
on different parts of the body to enable you to feel the 
points of the pins separately. 

Messages started by pressure in the nerves of touch. 
When we touch anything, the epidermis is pressed down 
on the ends of the nerves of touch. This starts impulses 
to the brain, and when these impulses arrive in the brain 
they cause us to feel. If all the nerve endings that are 
being stimulated have the same amount of pressure on 
them, we know that we are feeling a smooth surface. 
If some of them are being pressed harder than others, 
we know that the surface is rough. When we are 
touching an object, we know where the object is, be- 
cause we know from what part of the body the messages 
are coming. We know whether the object is large or 
small by the extent of skin surface that is touching it, 
and by the distance that we must move our hands to pass 
them over it. If you lay your hand against the wall, 
messages come in from the whole front of the hand, and 
you judge that you are touching one large object. If 
you feel two objects, like the points of two pencils, you 
know that there are two of them because the messages 
come from two places in the skin with a space between 
them in which the nerves are not being stimulated. 

Mistaken judgments concerning objects that we touch. 
The mind can make mistakes in judging of the messages 
that come in through the nerves of touch as well as in 
forming judgments from the messages that come in 
through the eye. Cross your fingers and rub them 
across the tip of your nose so that the nose is between 
the two fingers. Can you explain why you seem to feel 
two noses } 



2/8 



KEEPING THE LAWS 



Taste. The nerves of taste are in the mucous mem- 
brane of the tongue and of the back part of the m.outh. 
Before anything can be tasted, it must first be dissolved. 
Then it works its way down among the cells and starts 
impulses in the nerves of taste. When these impulses 
reach the brain, we learn whether the object has a sweet, 
sour, bitter, or salt taste. Many of the supposed tastes 
of foods are in reality odors, and when because of a cold 
or for other reasons the sense of smell is dull, many foods 
are practically tasteless. The continual use of tobacco, 
alcoholic drinks, and strong condiments like pepper 
and tabasco sauce, permanently weakens the sense of 
taste. 

The sense of smell. The sense of smell is probably 
the keenest of all our senses. It is likely that it is of 

use chiefly to judge whether 
or not our food is in proper 
condition to be eaten, and to 
tell whether air is fit to be 
breathed. Lower animals, 
like the dog, have this sense 
so highly developed that they 
can follow the track of a man 
or other animal many hours 
after the trail has been 
made. Among men, individ- 
uals differ greatly in the 
sharpness of their sense of smell. 

The nerve of smell stimulated by particles in the air. 
What we call an odor, or a smell, is in reality little particles 
of matter floating in the air. These particles come from 
a rose, from our food, or from anything that we smell, 




Fig. ICX3. The nerve of smell end- 
ing in the mucous membrane of 
the nasal chamber. 



TOUCH, TASTE, AND SMELL 279 

and are drawn up into the nasal chambers with the air. 
In the mucous membrane that lines the upper part of 
these chambers are found the olfactory cells, from which 
nerve fibers run to the brain. When odors come in con- 
tact with the olfactory cells, impulses are started that 
cause the sensation of smell. 

Care of the organ of smell. When the delicate olfactory 
cells are destroyed, they are not renewed, and the sense 
of smell is permanently lost. They may be destroyed 
by inflammation, which is often brought on by inhaling 
dust or by working among the fumes of acids or other 
chemicals. Exhaling cigarette smoke through the nose 
is also very injurious to the cells, and many ciga- 
rette smokers have little or no sense of smell. Another 
common cause of the loss of the sense of smell is catarrh, 
which ought always to be treated by a good physician 
and not allowed to run on from year to year. When 
the throat is blocked by adenoids, the odors of foods 
cannot enter the nose as they should, and the pleasure 
of eating is to a considerable extent lost. The sense of 
smell is valuable to us both because of the pleasure 
that we receive from agreeable odors and because of 
the warnings that come to us in the way of disagree- 
able odors, and we ought to try to keep it in as good 
working condition as possible. 

Hay fever. This distressing ailment is caused by in- 
haling the pollen of grasses and weeds. In the early 
part of the summer it is the grass pollen that is in the 
air ; in the fall the damage is done by pollen from weeds, 
especially from the ragweed. The pollen of grasses 
does not fly far, and in towns and cities the hay fever 
that occurs in the early summer can be entirely pre- 



28o KEEPING THE LAWS 

vented by keeping the grasses cut. On the other hand, 
the pollen of the ragweed and of certain other weeds is 
so very light that during high winds it is carried long 
distances in the air, and it would be necessary to cut the 
weeds in pastures and along country roadsides as well 
as those on vacant lots and along the streets to free the 
towns entirely from hay fever during the late summer 
and fall months. Yet much can be done to prevent the 
autumn cases of hay fever by giving attention to the 
weeds that are near at hand ; for the farther one is from 
the weeds, the less of their pollen he receives. It should 
be understood that it is weeds with small and incon- 
spicuous flowers that do the damage. The pollen of 
plants like the goldenrod, that have showy flowers, is 
insect-borne and is not carried in the air. 

QUESTIONS 

What do we learn through the touch ? What is a papilla? 
Explain how the nerves of touch end in the skin. Where are 
the nerves of touch most abundant? 

When we touch an object, how are the impulses started in 
the nerves ? How do we judge whether an object is rough or 
smooth? How do we know where it is? How do we judge 
of its size ? 

Where are the nerves of taste? How does the food reach 
the nerves of taste ? Why can we not taste certain foods when 
we have a cold? How may the sense of taste be injured? 

What purpose does the sense of smell serve? What is an 
odor? Where are the nerves of smell? How are messages 
started in them? How may the sense of smell be injured? 



CHAPTER FIFTEEN 

FOODS AND WHY WE NEED THEM 




Figs, ioi and 102. The windmill gets its power to work from the wind which 
blows against it ; the man gets his strength from the food that he eats. 

From my window I can see a windmill standing with 
its arms outlined against the sky. A little while ago 
it was whirling rapidly about and pumping water into 
the tank that it keeps suppUed. Now it is standing 
motionless in the sunshine, as if overcome by the morn- 
ing heat. Is the windmill broken ? Or has anything 
happened to it that will keep it from any longer pump- 
ing water for its owner ? Not at all. The only trouble 
is that the wind which supplied the power to run the 
mill has for the time failed. 

Wherever there is motion and whenever work is done, 
power to cause the motion and to do the work must 
come from somewhere. We think of a swift and heavy 
automobile as a powerful machine, but in reality the 
power comes from the gasoline that is exploded in 
the cylinders, and when the supply of gasoline gives 
out, an automobile can no more move itself than can a 
stone. Every other machine, whether it be run by 

281 



282 



KEEPING THE LAWS 



Steam, gasoline, electricity, water, wind, or in any other 
way, must' draw the power that runs it from some 
source outside itself. The windmill cannot run itself ; 
it must stand and wait until the wind comes to give 
it motion and make it able to do its work. 

Food as a source of power. The human body has 
strength. It moves and does work. It cannot furnish 
itself with power, however, so we must have some source 




Figs. 103 and 104. Food is necessary to furnish material for the repair and 
growth of the cells, and to keep up the body heat. 

from which to draw the strength that is in our muscles. 
This source of power is the food that we eat. Food is 
necessary to give strength to the body. Without it the 
muscle cells cannot contract and cause the movements 
of the body parts. 

Food as fuel. A locomotive as it thunders past us 
glows with warmth. It gets its warmth from the fuel 
that is burned under its boiler. A stove with a fire in it 
gives off heat to all the room. This heat comes not 
from the stove itself, but from the fuel that is burned in. 
the stove. Your own body is warm, as you know from 



FOODS AND WHY WE NEED TIIEM 283 

feeling it. The heat of the body comes from the food 
that is burned within the cells. Food is 7ieccssary to keep 
up the body heat. Without it the temperature of the 
body would quickly fall to that of the air about it, and 
this would be fatal to the cells ; for, as you already 
know, the cells can live and be in health only when the 
temperature of the body is close to 98 degrees (page 23 1 ). 

Food as building material. The human body is more 
wonderful than any machine made by man in that it 
builds its own parts and keeps them in repair. The 
body starts as a single cell, which is composed of 
protoplasm^ or living material. This cell builds more 
protoplasm, increases in size, and divides, and this 
process is kept up until the full-grown body is finally 
built of living cells which have come from the first cell. 
Even after the body is grown, new cells must be built ; 
for as long as life continues, the outer cells of the skin, 
the red blood corpuscles, and some of the other cells are 
dying and being replaced by new cells. 

New protoplasm is also constantly needed to repair the 
cells ; for within all the cells the living protoplasm is 
constantly breaking down and new protoplasm is being 
built to take its place. The material that is used in all 
this building of living matter comes from the food that 
we eat. Food is necessary to furnish material for the 
growth and repair of the cells. 

Elements found in the body. The living matter of the 
body is composed of at least five different elements, 
all built together into a material that is very different 
from any of them. The black solid called carbon 
makes up over one half of the whole. The two gases 
of the air, oxygen and nitrogen, together with another 



284 KEEPING THE LAWS 

very light and highly explosive gas, called hydrogen, 
make up nearly all the remainder. In addition, some 
sulfur is built into protoplasm, and in the nucleus of 
the cell a little phosphorus is found. Among other 
elements that are present in the body are chlorin and 
five minerals, — potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, 
and iron. It is not intended that you shall remember 
the names of all these elements, but it is intended that 
you shall understand that the body is made of perfectly 
definite materials, and that if these materials are not 
supplied in our foods, the body must suffer. 

The three classes of foods. Foods are divided into 
three classes, according to the elements of which they 
are composed. These classes are the proteins, the 
carbohydrates, which include the starches and sugars, 
and the fats. Lean meats, eggs, milk, peas, beans, 
and all foods made from grains are rich in protein. 
Potatoes, turnips, cabbage, and other vegetables are 
valuable mainly for their starch. Grains also contain 
large amounts of starch. Fruits, sweet potatoes, honey, 
molasses, and milk contain sugar, and we add great 
quantities of sugar to our foods to make them more 
pleasant to the taste. Fats and oils we get in butter, 
lard, fat meat, eggs, cheese, chocolate, nuts, and olive 
and cottonseed oil. In general, we get proteins and 
fats from animals, while from plants we get proteins 
and carbohydrates. From the table on page 394 you 
can learn the relative amounts of carbohydrates, fats, 
and proteins in different foods. 

Proteins the building foods. All three classes of foods 
give heat and strength to the body. The proteins fur- 
nish building materials in addition. They contain the 



FOODS AND IVHV WE NEED THEM 



285 



same five elements that are found in the Hving matter 
of the body, — carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and 
sulfur. Since they are used for building up the cells, 
we should expect them to contain these elements ; for 
we use leather to patch a leather shoe, steel to replace 
a worn-out part in a machine, and to repair the body, 
the materials of which the body is built must be used. 

Minerals necessary to the body. A man excretes from 
his body nearly an ounce of mineral salts daily,^ and it is 




Fig. 105. Wild animals often travel long distances to salt-licks. Man 
supplies himself with salt, but he often lacks other minerals. 

necessary that certain amounts of the different minerals 
found in the body be supplied to make good this loss. 
In our food we always get small quantities of these min- 
erals, and little attention has been given to making sure 
that diets include a sufficient supply of them. Recent 
experiments show that this trusting to chance for the 
right amount of minerals is not always satisfactory. 
Not counting common salt, with which we all supply 
ourselves, the three minerals that may be lacking in our 

^ The greater part of this mineral matter is common salt, of which the 
average man uses daily from one third to two thirds of an ounce. This 
is more than is necessary for the health, for experiments indicate that one 
tenth of this amount is sufficient to keep the body in good condition. 



286 KEEPING THE LAWS 

food are irouj calchtm (lime), and phosphorus. We 
shall discuss the need for each of these separately. 

Iron needed to build red blood corpuscles. Iron is used 
in the body mainly in building hemoglobin^ the sub- 
stance in the red blood corpuscles that carries the oxy- 
gen. If the supply of iron falls too low, the person 
becomes pale and weak because of a lack of red cor- 
puscles and because of a lack of hemoglobin in the cor- 
puscles that he has. In cases of this kind the patient 
is given iron in liquid form as a medicine, and a little of 
this seems to be used by the body ; but all physicians 
agree that for building hemoglobin the iron in food is 
far more valuable than iron in other forms. 

The green parts of vegetables, especially spinach, are 
rich in iron; and, in general, eggs, vegetables, and grains, 
when the outer portion of the grain is used, give a rich 
supply of this mineral. Milk is low in iron, and in ani- 
mals that feed their young on milk a large surplus store 
of iron is laid up in the body before birth. It is esti- 
mated that fifteen milligrams of iron are needed daily by 
a healthy man, and that the average diet contains from 
twelve to nineteen milligrams.^ This indicates that it 
would be very easy to select a diet that would be defi- 
cient in this important mineral. 

Lime needed by the body. A German investigator 
has shown that growing animals require about 1.2 per 
cent as much calcium as they gain in weight. When 
this amount of calcium is not provided, the bones are 
frail and the teeth are soft and defective. There must 
also be a certain amount of calcium dissolved in the 

1 An ounce of iron would furnish the body with 15 milligrams a day for 
five years. 



FOODS AND WHY WE NEED THEM 287 

lymph to keep the cells in health, and if the supply of 
lime be cut off entirely, life cannot continue. It is 
claimed that one half the people of the United States 
are suffering from lime starvation, and it is certainly 
true that many young children are not supplied with 
enough of this mineral. Adding a little limewater to 
artificial foods does not provide enough lime to be of 
much importance in building the skeleton and the 
teeth ; for a pint of limewater as strong as it can be 
made contains slightly less lime than is contained in a 
pint of cow's milk. Milk, eggs, vegetables, and grains 
hold the first place among the foods that are rich in lime, 
as can be seen by examining the table on page 394. 

Lack of phosphorus in the body. Experiments indicate 
that from 65 to 90 milligrams of phosphorus are needed 
daily in the body, — an amount greater than many 
diets will supply. The yolk of egg, the outer layer 
of grains, peas, beans, chocolate, and nuts are especially 
rich in phosphorus. Meats also supply considerable 
quantities of this element to the body. 

Foods rich in minerals. It is perhaps worth while to 
call attention at this time to the fact that the foods on 
which young animals and young plants live while start- 
ing in the world are complete foods, and therefore 
supply minerals as well as protein and energy-yielding 
substances to the body. Milk has in it all the elements, 
except iron, that are necessary to nourish a young ani- 
mal ; an ^gg has in it everything necessary to build a 
chick, including the iron for the blood corpuscles and 
the lime for the skeleton ; and a seed, such as a nut, or 
a grain of wheat, oats, corn, or rice, has in it the food 
material needed to start a young plant on its life. These 



288 



KEEPING THE LAWS 



foods are all rich in minerals, and they ought to form 
a great part of our diet and be eaten by young people 
especially. Vegetables, also, because of the large quan- 
tities of them that can be eaten, furnish a rich supply 
of minerals to the body. In the body of an animal the 
lime is in the skeleton, and when we eat the meat we 




Figs. io6, 107, and 108. Eggs, milk, and whole grain contain all the elements 
necessary to start a young animal or plant on its life. 

get little of this mineral.^ In wheat the mineral mat- 
ter is mainly near the surface of the grains and is not 
found in white flour.^ A diet, therefore, that is com- 
posed chiefly of meat and white bread is low in the 
minerals needed by the body. Whole wheat bread, 
oatmeal, breakfast foods, and, in general, vegetables 
and fruits, are rich in minerals. Children who are fed 
too long on milk suffer because of a lack of iron, and 
a meat diet supplies less mineral to the body than a 
vegetable diet. The diet of children in particular needs 

1 When a wolf or a fox eats a bird or a hare, it makes sure of a supply 
of calcium for itself by eating the bones as well as the flesh. Puppies fed 
only on lean meat and fat meat showed weakness of the bones, while 
other puppies of the same litter that were given bones to gnaw, in addi- 
tion to the meat, developed normally. 

2 The laxative effect of whole wheat bread is now believed to be due 
to the rich supply of phosphorus in it, and not to the irritating effects of 
the bran, as was formerly supposed. 



FOODS AM) iniV ir/L NEED THEM 289 

care to make sure that the right minerals are contained 
in it, for there is a special need for mineral matter when 
the body is growing rapidly. 

Vitamins. Within the last few years it has been dis- 
covered that certain substances called vitamins are neces- 
sary for health. We do not know exactly what vitamins 
are, but very small amounts of them are found in our 
foods, and a good diet must contain them. They are 
partly destroyed by cooking, and are entirely destroyed 
by great heat. For this reason, they are not found in 
canned goods, and any one who tries to live without 
fresh foods in time loses his health. 

As yet we do not know how many vitamins there are, 
but scurvy is now known to be due to the lack of a sub- 
stance that is found especially in fresh vegetables, fresh 
fruits, raw milk, and fresh raw meats.^ A disease of the 
nervous system called beriberi that causes many deaths 
among peoples that live chiefly on rice is also known to 
be caused by the lack of a vitamin that is present in egg 
yolk, fresh beef, fish, beans, peas, and in the outer layers 
of the grains of oats, barley, wheat, and corn. This vita- 
min is present in the outer layer of the rice grain also, 
but it is lost when the rice is polished for table use. 
The disease can be prevented by using unpolished rice 
and it can be cured by a substance extracted from rice 
bran. There is also considerable evidence that pellagra 
is caused by a diet that lacks some needed material ; it 
has been suggested that rickets is also a ** deficiency 
disease"; and by experiments on animals it has been 

1 Scurvy is a disease of infants who are improperly fed and of sailors 
and others who lack fresh food. Orange and lemon juice contain the 
needed vitamin, and the disease can be prevented or cured by their use. 



290 KEEPING THE LAWS 

proved that a vitamin which is necessary for growth is 
found in butter, in the yolk of eggs, and in the fat from 
the livers of animals. The discovery of the existence 
of vitamins has emphasized the importance of fresh 
foods, and it has helped to explain the advantages of a 
varied diet and the evil consequences of living on only 
a few foods. 

Selecting foods. Of all the hygienic problems that 
confront mankind, that of selecting a proper diet is one 
of the most difficult. Since the health of the digestive 
organs as well as the needs of the body for certain mate- 
rials must be kept in mind, the whole subject can be 
entered into more intelligently after the digestive system 
has been studied. In the next chapter, therefore, we 
shall discuss the digestive organs and their work, and 
shall then take up the more difficult subject of selecting 
a diet that will keep the human body in health. 

QUESTIONS 

Give three uses of foods in the body. Name the five ele- 
ments that make up most of the body tissues. Name some 
other elements which are present in the body. Name the 
three classes of foods. What foods are rich in protein ? in 
starch ? in sugar ? in fat ? 

Which classes of foods give heat and strength to the body ? 
Which class furnishes building material ? 

For what is iron used in the body ? In what foods is iron 
abundant ? Why is lime necessary to the body ? What foods 
are rich in lime ? What foods are rich in phosphorus ? 
Why are grains, nuts, milk, and eggs complete foods ? Why 
is a diet of meat and white bread deficient in minerals ? 

What are vitamins ? What diseases are due to a lack of 
them ? In what kinds of foods are vitamins found ? 



CHAPTER SIXTEEN 

THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS AND THEIR WORK 

Robinson Crusoe on his island had plenty of goats, 
and from goat hair a fine waterproof cloth is woven 
that is used as a covering for the tops of automobiles. 
Yet, because Crusoe had no way of turning the hair of 
his goats into cloth, he was forced to wear clothes made 
of stiff, heavy skins and to carry an absurdly heavy and 
awkward skin umbrella. There were trees in abun- 
dance on the island, but it required much labor to con- 
vert them into baskets, furniture, and boats. There was 
clay from which all kinds of dishes and vessels could 
have been made, but he went for years without tasting 
soup or boiled food, and he counted it one of the happy 
hours of his life when he succeeded in making a rude 
vessel that would stand the fire. There were tons of 
sand to be had from which glass might easily have been 
manufactured, but he had no windows in his dwellings. 
All about Crusoe were materials from which a thousand 
articles could have been made that would have added 
to his comfort and enjoyment, but until these materials 
were worked over and changed, he could not put them 
to use. 

The meats, grains, and vegetables that we eat contain 
the materials that are needed for the nourishment of 
our bodies, but the form of these foodstuffs must be 
changed before we can use them. As ice must be melted 
before the elements that are in it can be used by the 
body, so must our foods be digested before they can be 
taken into the blood and used by the cells. Digestion 
is the process of breaking up and changing onr foods into 

291 



292 



KEEPING THE LAWS 



esophagus 



stomach 



substances that can be dissolved and taken into the blood. 
Until this is done, our solid food is as useless to us as 
were most of the materials on his island to Robinson 
Crusoe. 

The digestive system. The digestive system includes 
the alimentary canal y the teeth, the salivary glands, the 

liver, and Xh^ pan- 
creas. The ali- 
mentary canal is 
the long passage- 
way through the 
body into which 
the food is taken 
and in which it 
stays while it is 
being digested. 
It is lined with a 
moist mucous 
membrane, and in 
its walls are mus- 
cles to force the 
food onward 
through the 
canal. The teeth 
are a mill set at 
the mouth of the 
alimentary canal 
to crush and grind the food into small pieces so that it 
will be easier to digest. The other digestive organs are 
glands that pour juices into the alimentary canal to 
assist in the digestion of the food. The whole process 
of preparing the food for the use of the body is a most 



large 
intestine 



vermiform 
appendix 




spleen 
pancreas 



intestine 



Fig. 109. The digestive system. 



THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS AND THEIR WORK 293 



important one, and the great set of organs that carry 
it on fill nearly the whole abdominal cavity. 

The digestive glands. The digestive glands are 
formed by the folding of the mucous membrane that 
lines the alimentary canal 
into deep little pockets. 
The juices that digest the 
foodflowoutof the mouths 
of these glands. The 
liquid part of the juices 
is composed of water that 
passes through the walls 
of the glands from the 
lymph, as water passes 
into a sweat gland (page 
233). Some glands are 
simple, like little wells 
sunk in the walls of the 
digestive tract. Others, 
like the salivary glands and the pancreas, are branched 
like a tree, and the juices that come from them are se- 
creted by hundreds of little tubules, all of which flow 
into the main duct of the gland. The glands are said 
to secrete when the liquid flows from them, and the liquid 
itself is called the secretion of the gland. 

The work of digestion done by enzymes. Dissolved 
in the secretions of the digestive glands are certain 
substances called enzymes. These are built up by the 
cells that compose the walls of the glands and are dis- 
solved by the liquid which passes through the cells 
when the glands secrete. TJie work of digesting the 
foods is do7ie by the e?tzymes. An enzyme digests only 




connecHve 
artery tisstie 

Fig. iio. Diagram of a simple gland. 



294 



KEEPING THE LAWS 



one kind of food, so there are different enzymes secreted 
for breaking up the protein, fat, starch, and each of the 
different kinds of sugars that we eat. As we study the 
work of the different digestive juices, we shall speak of 
them as digesting the foods. You will understand, how- 
ever, that it is the enzymes in these juices that do the 
actual work of digestion. 

The salivary glands. There are three pairs of sali- 
vary glands. One pair lies under the tongue; one 
pair is found under the 
corners of the lower 
jaw; and the other pair 
is found in front of 
and below the ears 
(Fig. in). These glands 
secrete the saliva, which 
is carried to the mouth 
by ducts leading from 
the glands. The saliva 
moistens the food and 
makes it possible to swallow food like crackers, which 
in a dry state would become dust in the mouth. 
Dissolved in the saliva is an enzyme which begins the 
process of digestion by attacking the starch that is in 
the food and breaking it up into malt sugar. 

The esophagus and stomach. The esophagus is the 
tube connecting the throat and the stomach. Food and 
drink do not fall down the esophagus, but are forced 
down it by the contraction of the muscles in the walls 
of the esophagus. This you can prove by drinking 
with your head lower than your body. 

The stomach stands almost on its end on the left side 




Fig. III. The salivary glands. 



THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS AND THEIR WORK 295 

of the body close up under the diaphragm. It holds 
about three pints, and when full is about a foot long. 
When empty, its walls are drawn together and it 
occupies little space. It has a double function — to 
serve as a storehouse for food so that enough can be 
eaten at one time to supply the body for several hours, 
and to secrete gastric juice for the digestion of the food. 

The gastric juice. From two and one half to five 
quarts of gastric juice are secreted a day. It comes 
from the many hundreds of little glands which lie in the 
stomach wall and open into the stomach. The gastric 
juice contains an enzyme called pepsin that digests 
protein. It contains also an acid which kills many of 
the bacteria in the foods and so keeps these bacteria 
from causing trouble in the intestine. The acid in the 
gastric juice stops the action of the saliva on the 
starch, but in the upper part of the stomach the food 
may lie from one to two hours before the gastric juice 
works its way through it. The saliva, therefore, has a 
considerable time in which to digest the starch before 
the acid reaches it. The heat in the stomach melts the 
fat in the food, which assists in reducing the whole 
food mass to a liquid condition. 

The small intestine. The small intestine is coiled 
and folded upon itself in the abdominal cavity. It is 
about twenty-two feet in length and its walls are Hned 
with thousands of little glands. These glands secrete 
an intestinal juice which contains several enzymes that 
are important in the digestion of the food. On the 
intestinal wall are many little finger-like projections 
called villi (singular, villus). These contain many blood 
vessels, and they absorb the digested food ; that is, they 



296 KEEPING THE LAWS 

take it into the blood through the intestmal wall. So 
abundant are the villi that they give the entire inner 
surface of the intestinal wall the appearance of velvet. 

The liver and the pancreas. The liver weighs nearly 
four pounds and is the largest gland in the body. It 
lies on the right side of the body under the diaphragm. 
It secretes a greenish yellow liquid called bile^ which 
is poured into the small intestine when food passes into 
the intestine for digestion. The bile assists in destroy- 
ing acids that come from the stomach, in making more 
active the enzyme that digests the fats, and in dissolv- 
ing the fatty foods. In the next chapter, we shall study 
other important functions of the liver. 

The pancreas is a long, light-colored gland which lies 
along the lower border of the stomach. It secretes and 
empties into the small intestine great quantities of thin, 
watery pancreatic juice. This liquid contains enzymes 
for digesting the three most important foodstuffs, — pro- 
teins, starches, and fats. The pancreatic and intestinal 
juices along with the bile are thoroughly mixed with the 
food in the small intestine, and they are even more im- 
portant than the gastric juice in preparing the food to 
be carried to all parts of the body. 

The large intestine. The large intestine begins low 
down in the right side of the abdominal cavity, passes 
up the right side of the body, then across under the dia- 
phragm, and down the left side of the body. Just below 
where the small intestine opens into it, there is a small, 
worm-like structure called the vermiform appendix. The 
walls of the vermiform appendix contain much loose 
spongy tissue of the same kind that is found m the ton- 
sils, and just as tonsillitis is caused by germs growing in 



THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS AND THEIR WORK 297 

the tonsils, so appendicitis is caused by germs growing 
in tiie walls of the appendix. 




the food masticated and mixed with 
saliva 



starch digested by the saliva 

food mixed with gastric juice ; pepsin 
digests proteins; fats melted and 
food liquefied 

food mixed with bile, pancreatic juice^ 
and intestinal juice ; pancreatic juice 
digests proteins, starches, and fats; 
stcgars digested to grape sugar by en- 
zymes in intestinal juice 

food continually cut into segments and 
mixed with digestive juices; digestion 
goes on, and digested food absorbed 
and carried away; a few bacteria 
present in refuse 

liquids being absorbed; mucus and 
wastes excreted by glands; abuiidant 
growth of bacteria 

continued growth of bacteria; wastes 
contain poisonous substances and 
should be removed from the body to 
prevent the poisons from- being ab- 
sorbed into the blood 



\=^ 



Fig. 112. A diagram illustrating the changes that take place in the food during 
its journey through the different parts of the alimentary canal. 

The story of digestion. Let us now trace the history 
of a meal by imagining that we can see the food after it 
has been eaten, and that we can watch it while it is being 
digested. In the mouth we find that the teeth slide over 



298 KEEPING THE LAWS 

each other, crush the food into small pieces, and mix it 
with saliva. The enzyme in the saliva at once begins 
the process of digestion by attacking the starch that is 
in bread, potatoes, and many other of our foods, and 
changing it to sugar. 

After the food has been chewed, the tongue draws it 
back into the opening of the pharynx. The walls of the 
pharynx then grasp it and press it backward and down- 
ward into the esophagus, through which it is carried to 
the stomach. When the food reaches the stomach, the 
gastric juice trickles in on it from the glands in the walls 
all about, and the pepsin attacks the meats and other pro- 
tein foods. Under the action of the gastric juice the outer 
layer of the food mass dissolves and slides on into the 
lower part of the stomach, where the stomach walls con- 
tract on it and squeeze it about to mix the gastric juice 
thoroughly with it. 

From time to time the ring of muscle that closes the 
gateway between the stomach and the intestine opens, 
and a portion of the food from the lower part of the stom- 
ach is forced on into the intestine in the form of a thick 
liquid.^ Here a flood of digestive juices is poured in 
upon it. Greenish yellow bile comes from the liver ; great 
quantities of juice rich in enzymes for digesting proteins, 
starches, and fats are secreted by the pancreas ; and all 
along the small intestine, juices containing enzymes are 
poured out by the thousands of little glands that are in 

^ It should be understood that during stomach digestion the food is 
continuously being worked downward from the upper part of the stomach, 
and that from time to time it passes on into the intestine in rather small 
amounts. It takes about six hours for the stomach to be emptied after . 
an ordinary meal. 



THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS AND THEIR WORK 299 

the wall. The circular muscles in the walls of the intes- 
tine keep contracting on the food and cutting it up into 
little sausage-like segments which are continually being 
made, combined, remade, and moved about, thus mixing 
the digestive juices thoroughly with the food/ All the 
time the food is gradually being worked along the in- 
testine and the enzymes are bringing about the following 
changes in it : 

The pancreatic juice attacks the protein and spHts that 
which has escaped the pepsin of the stomach ; it breaks 
up the starch and completes the digestion of this 
part of the food ; and it digests the fat, changing 
it into glycerin and other substances that will dissolve 
in the intestine. The enzymes in the intestinal juice 
assist in digesting the protein and in changing all the 
different sugars into the one particular sugar (grape 
sugar) that the body can use. 

And now as we follow the food in its course through 
the intestine, we notice that the liquid becomes less and 
less in amount ; that only the solid wastes remain. As 
some desert rivers run out over the sand and lose them- 
selves in their own channels, so the stream of liquid 
food in the intestine disappears. Where is it going.? 
It is soaking into the wall of the intestine and passing 
into the millions of little capillaries that run in the 
wall. What will be done with it ? It will be car- 
ried through all the body to furnish heat and strength, 
and to be built into bone and muscle and nerve ; for 
as the waterfall, even though it keep the same form, 

^ The segments into which the food is cut are about an inch long, and 
the contractions of the muscle rings come as often as thirty times a 
minute. 




intestine. 

Fig. 113, 

carry the food from the small intestine, 



300 KEEPING THE LAWS 

is made up of rapidly passing water, so our bodies, 
that seem to us to be the same year by year, are 

composed of materials that 
are ever shifting. The 

hloodmssd. -^ ^^^''^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^""^ ^^"^^y 

will, in a short while, be 

dead and gone, and the 

food that we eat today 

will be built into a new 

skin. The flesh and heart 

and brain of an ox are 

built of grass, and the 

Fig. IIS. Showing the vessels which i i. j • i. m^. r 

carrv the food from the small intestine. ^Uman body IS built of 

the food that we eat. 

The refuse matter in the large intestine. In all food 
there is some indigestible material like the woody, 
fibrous parts of potatoes and cabbages, the skins of 
fruits, and the tough fibers of meat. This matter passes 
from the small intestine into the large intestine, where 
its bulk is very considerably increased by mucus and 
other wastes that are secreted by the glands in the wall 
of the large intestine. In this waste material, millions of 
bacteria grow and cause decay, and in the process of de- 
cay, poisonous substances are formed. Nothing is more 
important to the health than that this refuse material 
be cleared out of the intestine before the poisons are 
absorbed into the body. This question we shall discuss 
in the next chapter. 

Two important points in hygiene. In closing this 
chapter we shall call your attention to two closely 
related points in hygiene, both of which are vital 
to the preservation of the health. The first is that 



THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS AND THEIR WORK 301 




alcoholic drinks, especially strong drinks like whisky, 
brandy, and rum, are exceedingly injurious to the 
stomach, and their habitual use very commonly causes 
inflammation of the lining of the stomach and degener- 
ation of the gastric glands (page 354). This, of course, 
interferes with the secretion 
of the gastric juice and causes 
masses of food to pass on 
into the intestine in an un- 
digested condition. Bacteria 
then grow in this food and 
cause it to decay, and we 
have the coated tongue, 
the headache, and all the 
other evil effects that follow 
the absorption of poisons 
from the intestinal wastes. 

The other point that we 
shall mention is the impor- 
tance of thoroughly masti- 
cating the food. A large lump of rock sugar will 
lie for a long time in a glass of water before it is 
dissolved, but if the sugar be ground up into small 
pieces, it will quickly go into solution. So if the food 
is swallowed in masses, the enzymes will be able to 
work only on the surface of the large pieces and diges- 
tion will be very slow. This will cause undigested 
fragments to pass into the intestine and form a home 
for bacteria, and the body will be damaged by intestinal 
poisons precisely as in the case of a person who has 
alcoholic dyspepsia. We shall devote another chapter 
to the care of the teeth, but at this point we must insist 



Fig. 114. Section of a rat's stom- 
ach after the rat had been fed dif- 
ferent colored foods. As the food 
is taken into the stomach, it ar- 
ranges itself in layers. That eaten 
last is buried in the center of the 
mass and is protected for a con- 
siderable time from the gastric juice. 
{^After Griitzner.) 



302 KEEPING THE LAWS 

that it is 7tecessary to use the teeth that we have, — that 
grinding the food into small pieces and mixing the saliva 
thoroughly with it is one of the most important of all the 
rules of hygiene. 

QUESTIONS 

What change must be made in foods before the body can 
use them ? What is digestion ? Name the parts of the di- 
gestive system. Describe the alimentary canal. What is the 
function of the teeth ? 

Describe a gland and explain where the secretion of the 
gland comes from. What is an enzyme ? By what is the 
work of digestion done ? 

How many salivary glands are there and where are they ? 
What is the function of the saliva ? What food is digested 
by the saliva ? Into what is it changed ? 

What is the esophagus ? Describe the stomach. What is 
the function of the gastric juice ? What enzyme does it con- 
tain and what is the function of this enzyme ? How are bac- 
teria killed in the stomach ? 

Describe the small intestine. What are villi? What is 
their function ? Describe the liver. What does it secrete ? 
What is the use of the bile ? Describe the pancreas. What 
foodstuffs does the pancreatic juice digest ? 

Describe the large intestine. What causes appendicitis ? 

Tell the story of the digestion and absorption of food. 
Where is the food taken after it is absorbed ? 

Of what are the wastes in the large intestine composed ? 
Why is it important that these wastes be promptly cleared 
out of the body ? What effect has alcohol on the stomach ? 
How does this interfere with the health ? Explain why the 
food should be thoroughly chewed. 



CHAPTER SEVENTEEN 




THE FOODS WITHIN THE BODY 

We have now traced the food through its digestion. 
We have explained how it is taken into the blood and 

v -> ■ 1 carried to the cells. 

^^ ■"=="" What do the cells 

do with it ? What 
becomes of it after 
the cells have fin- 
ished with it? 
Why, when we 
keep eating all the 
time, does not the 
body become so 
full of food that 
we cannot take in 

Fig. 115. When the candle burns the elements in more ? Perhaps it 
it are not destroyed. niay Start yoU tO 

thinking about this subject in the right way if we go 
back for a few minutes to something else that you have 
seen. 

Long ago in your Mother Goose book you read : 

'' Little Nanny Etticoat, 
In a white petticoat 
And a red nose. 
The longer she stands, 
The shorter she grows." 

Why does a lighted candle grow shorter the longer 
it stands? What becomes of the candle when it is 
burned ? You must study chemistry before you will 
have a really clear idea of what happens in the process 
of burning. At present we can only explain to you 

303 



304 KEEPING THE LAWS 

that the oxygen of the air unites with the elements of 
which the wax is composed and forms carbon dioxid 
and water, which pass off into the air. The materials 
in the candle, therefore, ai^e not destroyed. They are 
merely changed to vapor and gas. 

The fate of the carbohydrates and the fats. The 
cells of the body take in the sugar and fats of the 
foods. They also take in oxygen. Within the cells the 
oxygen and the food unite slowly and without smoke 
or flame, and the food is oxidized, or burned as truly 
as the wax of a lighted candle is burned. This oxida- 
tion of the foods furnishes heat to the body and strength 
to the muscle cells ; and, as in the burning of the candle 
the wax is changed to carbon dioxid and water, so 
within the cells the fats and carbohydrates are changed 
to carbon dioxid and water. The carbon dioxid is 
breathed out of the body through the lungs. The 
water is excreted by the lungs, the kidneys, and the 
skin. Thus the fuel foods are burned in the cells and 
the wastes which are formed from them are cast out of 
the body. The profit which the body receives from these 
foods is the heat a^id the power to do work which are 
given to the body when they are burned. 

The fate of the protein foods in the body. The living 
protoplasm of the body is continually breaking down 
and being oxidized. The protein food is used to build 
new protoplasm to take the place of that which is 
broken down.^ In time this protoplasm will also be 
broken down and oxidized, so that the protein materials 
that are used for building the living tissues are as 

^ Only a part of protein food is built into living tissue. The remainder 
is oxidized as described on page 307. 



THE FOODS WITHIN- THE IWDV 



30s 



truly burned in the body as are the carbohydrates and 
fats. The difference is that they are built into living 
material before the oxidation takes place. Carbon di- 
oxid and water are among the waste products that 
come from the burning of the proteins, but there are 
other wastes also, — uric acid and other similar sub- 
stances. These wastes are in- 
jurious to the cells, and the 
liver does a very important 
work in gathering up and con- 
verting a great part of them 
into a harmless substance called 
urea} We shall now describe 
the organs that excrete the 
urea and other protein wastes. 
The kidneys. Fastened to 
the back wall of the abdomi- 
nal cavity are two bean-shaped 
organs, called the kidneys. 
Each kidney has in it many 
thousands of little tubes which 
all drain into a larger tube, the 
ureter (Fig. 116). The little 
tubes in the kidneys, hke the 
sweat glands, are surrounded 
by lymph, and the water of the lymph passes into 
them and flows out of their mouths, as water passes 




Fig. 116. The kidneys and the 
bladder seen from behind. 



^ About 92.5 per cent of all the protein wastes excreted by the kidneys 
is in the form of urea. About 2 per cent of the whole is excreted in the 
form of uric acid, and it is estimated that an equal amount of uric acid is 
converted into urea by the liver. The uric acid part of the wastes comes 
from the nuclei of the cells and from the muscle cells when they work. 



3o6 



KEEPING THE LAWS 



into a sweat gland and flows out on the skin. The 
urea and other protein wastes are dissolved in the lymph, 
and they leave the body by passing with the water 
through the kidney tubes into the ureter and draining 
off to the bladder. The function of the kidneys is to 
excrete water ^ salts, and protein wastes. 

Storage of the foods within the body. When more 
carbohydrate is eaten than is needed for immediate use 
in the body, it is changed to a starch-like substance 
called glycogen, and is stored within the cells of the 
liver and to a certain extent in the fibers of the 
muscles. When the supply of sugar in the blood runs 
low, this reserve store of glycogen is broken up again 
into sugar and given off into the blood to feed the cells. 

When more fat is eaten than can be used in the body, 
certain cells take it in and store it within themselves 
until they become little more than 
bags of oil. These cells, massed 
together, form the fat that you see 
in the body of an animal. When 
a person is sick and does not eat, 
the body uses this fat for food. 

A small amount of protein is dis- 
solved in the blood, but the great 
mass of protein in the body is the 
muscles. It is not necessary for 
our lives that the muscles be kept 
at their full size, and when for any fig. 117. Fat cells. They 
reason we are deprived of food, the ^""^ ^^"^^ "^^""^ ^^^^ ^^^^ °^ 
muscle fibers are broken down and 

used to nourish the cells of the heart, the brain, and 
other vital organs. Famine sufferers and persons who 




THE FOODS WITHIN THE BODY 307 

have come through long sicknesses are Httle more than 
skeletons because their muscles have been used to sus- 
tain the organs necessary for life and the fat has been 
used to give the body heat and strength. 

Surplus food in the body. When we eat more carbo- 
hydrate than can be stored in the liver and muscles, it 
is converted into fat and stored in this form. Usually 
we lose our appetite for carbohydrates and fats when 
we have had enough to furnish a reasonable supply of 
fat in the body. We can, therefore, in most cases trust 
our appetites to tell us when we have had enough bread, 
potatoes, fat meat, butter, or other starchy or fatty foods 
(page 317). There are, however, a few persons whose 
cells oxidize these foods very slowly, and such persons 
become too heavy and fleshy if they eat freely of foods 
of this kind. 

When more protein is eaten than can be used or 
stored in the body, it is broken up, and excreted through 
the kidneys.^ From this protein the same wastes are 
formed that are formed from the breaking down of the 
protein of the body cells. A heavy diet of meat, or of 
other foods that are high in protein, therefore, gives the 
liver large amounts of protein wastes to change into urea, 
and sometimes more of these wastes are thrown into the 
blood than the kidneys can excrete. This subject we 
shall discuss in more detail in the next chapter. 

Alcohol as food. Alcohol in small quantities can be 

1 In the breaking up of the excess protein, the carbon and hydrogen in 
it are converted into either sugar or fat and used to give the body heat 
and strength. It is not to be understood, therefore, that surplus proteins 
are entirely useless to the body. The point is that they yield only energy, 
and this can be obtained much more cheaply from carbohydrates and fats 
without filling the body with poisonous wastes. 



308 KEEPING THE LAWS 

used to furnish strength to the muscles. In quantities 
up to two ounces a day it is oxidized within the cells and 
gives heat to the body. Because it can be used in these 
ways, it is often stated that it is a food. The modern 
idea of a food, however, is that it must not only furnish 
building material or energy to the body, but that it must 
also be harmless when it is broken up within the cells. 
This definition of a food is, we think, a correct one ; for 
certainly the toxin of the tetanus or the diphtheria germ 
is not a food, opium is not a food, and strychnin is not a 
food.^ Yet all these poisons are taken into the cells and 
are broken up in them, and they must furnish a small 
amount of heat to the cells. 

We cannot, therefore, say that alcohol is a food be- 
cause it is used by the cells, but before making our 
decision on this point we must know whether in being 
broken up within the cells it damages them — whether 
it interferes with those wonderful processes that keep 
the protoplasm alive. When we view the question in 
this light, we must decide that alcohol acts as a drug 
rather than as a food ; for, as a drunken man shows, 
the action of the mind is dulled and made very uncertain 
by alcohol ; under its influence the muscles are weak- 

1 Alcohol is composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. It is made 
from sugar, has in it the same elements that are found in sugar, and it 
would seem reasonable to expect it to act as a food toward the cells. We 
must, however, recognize that not only what elements are in foods and 
drugs, but also the way they are built together, is important ; for carbolic 
acid is built of the same materials and is closely related to sugar and 
alcohol, and strychnin and cocain are composed of carbon, hydrogen, 
oxygen, and nitrogen, — the same elements that are most abundant in 
protein foods. Just why substances that are composed of the same ele- 
ments should affect the cells so differently is hard to explain, but it is one 
of the facts of chemistry that we must accept. 



THE FOODS WITHIN THE 110 1) Y 309 

ened and their control is lost ; and its whole effect 
on the body is that of a drug and not of an ordinary 
food. Even in small amounts, — amounts far too small 
to produce signs of intoxication, — there is good reason 
to believe that alcohol interferes with the enzymes that 
break up the food within the cells and throws the life 
processes of the protoplasm out of their natural course.^ 

QUESTIONS 

What becomes of the materials in a candle when the candle 
is burned ? What happens to the carbohydrates and fats within 
the cells of the body ? What becomes of the carbon dioxid 
that is formed in the body ? What becomes of the water ? 
What does the body gain by the oxidation of the fuel foods ? 

What is constantly happening to the protoplasm of the body ? 
What happens to the protein food before it is oxidized? What 

1 In the Hygienic Laboratory of the United States Government at 
Washington, an experiment was performed with mice and guinea pigs that 
gives reason for believing that alcohol does not act like ordinary foods 
within the cells. In this experiment, the animals were given acetonitrile, 
a drug that is not itself a poison but which breaks up into poisonous com- 
pounds within the body. When an animal was given along with the ace- 
tonitrile the smallest quantities of alcohol, the acetonitrile was broken up 
much faster than is natural and the animal was poisoned by a dose too 
small to have any appreciable effect when alcohol was not given. This 
proves that the alcohol changes the processes that go on within the cells. It 
does not, of course, prove that they are changed in a way that is injurious 
when acetonitrile is not given with the alcohol, but there is a quite wide- 
spread belief that even small quantities of alcohol have an evil effect on 
the changes that the protein foods undergo within the cells. Until we 
know that this is not the case, it is unreasonable to include alcohol in our 
list of foods. It should be understood that the above results followed the 
administration of alcohol in amounts '* far too small ever to cause indica- 
tions of intoxication and in doses which almost certainly cause no anatomi- 
cal lesions which could be detected by present methods." 



310 KEEPING THE LAWS 

wastes are formed from the proteins ? Describe the structure 
of a kidney. What is the function of the kidneys ? 

How is carbohydrate stored in the body ? Under what con- 
ditions will the glycogen be changed again to sugar ? How are 
excess sugar and fat stored in the body ? Of what use is the 
fat in the body ? Where in the body is protein stored ? What 
happens to the muscles and fat of famine sufferers ? 

What happens if more protein is eaten than can be used or 
stored in the body ? In what way is a heavy protein diet inju- 
rious to the body ? 

Define a food. Why is alcohol sometimes classed as a food ? 
What reason is there for not including it among our foods ? 



CHAPTER EIGHTEEN 

FOODS AND HEALTH 

How shall we know what foods we ought to eat and 
how much of each is best for us ? Occasionally the idea 
is advanced that in selecting a diet the best plan is to 
follow the appetite, — that the lower animals keep in 
health by eating the food they like and that when the 
body calls for anything it does so because it needs it. 
It would be fortunate for us if by following this simple 
rule we could always be sure of keeping our digestive 
organs in order and of supplying our bodies with the 
materials that they need. But as a matter of fact this 
is not the case ; for many persons crave foods that they 
know will disagree with them, and the world is filled 
with people who have not found health by following 
their appetites. Man has become so artificial in his 
life that in the selection of his food he must follow rules 
and principles as well as his feelings, and to learn to do 
this properly is no easy task. 

Requirements a good diet must meet. A good diet 
must supply the body with the protein, carbohydrate, 
fat, minerals, and vitamins that the body needs. It must 
not cause indigestion, and it must not cause the cells to 
be poisoned by injurious substances absorbed from the 
intestinal wastes. Some important facts that will help 
in selecting a diet of this kind, we shall now discuss. 

Quantity of protein needed by the body. When men 
are given an abundance of food and are allowed to 
select the kinds that they like, it is found that the 
average man consumes daily from four to four and one 
half ounces of dry protein. Some individuals eat far 
more and a few persons take much less than this 

311 



312 



KEEPING THE LAWS 



amount, but a little more than four ounces is the 
quantity of protein eaten by the average prosperous 
American or European. Since vegetarians always take 
a lower amount of protein than this, and since heavy 

meat eaters always 
take more than this 
amount, much of the 
debate that is con- 
stantly carried on 
between vegetarians 
and flesh eaters 
centers around the 
protein needs of the 
body. 

Effects of living on 
a low-protein diet. 
The advocates of a 
low-protein diet point 
out the fact that the 




Fig. ii8. a Roman and a Japanese soldier. 
They made their reputations as fighters on a 
low-protein diet. 



ancient Persians lived mainly on fruits, vegetables, and 
milk ; that the conquering eagles of Rome were car- 
ried over practically all the known world by soldiers who 
subsisted chiefly on grain ; and that many of the other 
peoples that have been powerful in history have found 
a low-protein diet sufficient for their needs. They can 
find in our own time, also, numerous nations and indi- 
viduals that eat little meat and take a low allowance of 
protein. Among these may be mentioned the Japanese, 
who keep in good health on a daily allowance of from 
two to three ounces of protein ; the desert dwellers, who 
subsist principally on dates and milk; and those per- 
sons found in nearly every community who live mainly 



FOODS AND HEALTH 313 

on fruits and nuts. Furthermore, they are able to refer 
to laboratory experiments which seem to prove that it is 
possible for men and groups of men to keep in the best 
of health when living on from one and a half to two 
and a half ounces of protein daily, and they can list a 
considerable number of athletes who have made their 
records on a diet that included no meat.^ These they 
refer to as facts of experience, and they state that when 
we eat heavily of meats we do so because we like the 
taste of them and not because the body needs the large 
amounts of protein that they supply. 

Objections to a high-protein diet. Several objections to . 
a high-protein diet are made by those who are opposed 
to it. 

One objection is that a high-protein diet loads the sys- 
tem with protein wastes. It has long been believed by 
many physicians that part of the trouble, at least, in 
gout and other nervous ailments, is due to substances of 
the uric acid class, and they believe that these diseases 
are benefited by cutting the protein to a low point. 

A second objection to a high-protein diet is that it does 
not supply the body with sufficient quantities of certain 
minerals. Meats are especially low in some of the 
minerals that we need (page 288). 

A third objection to a high-proteift diet is that it does 
not supply the bulk that is fieeded in the food. Much 
refuse is needed to fill up the intestine and to cause the 

1 Vegetarian athletes seem to excel in long-distance races and other 
contests that require endurance, rather than in the short, sharp contests 
that call for a brief output of strength. In connection with this point it 
is interesting to note that hounds have more endurance for the chase when 
they are fed on bread than they have when they are fed on meat. 



314 KEEPING THE LAWS 

wastes to be moved rapidly along and promptly removed 
from the body, and in rich-protein foods this bulky 
material is lacking. 

A fourth objection to a high-protein diet is that it 
causes poisonous substances to be formed in the intestine} 
These poisons are then absorbed into the body, and 
cause headaches and other ill health by poisoning the 
cells. 

Arguments for a high-protein diet. The arguments 
which we have been giving for a low-protein diet may 
have much truth in them, and in some individuals and 
in certain diseases it is unquestionably beneficial to cut 
the protein in the diet to a low point. Many physiolo- 
gists, however, believe that these are exceptional cases, 
and they do not agree that every one would be benefited 
by a diet of this kind. In support of this position 
arguments like the following are advanced. 

While it is true that persons can live in health on a 
vegetable diet, it is also true that many strong and 
vigorous individuals and races have subsisted mainly on 
a flesh diet ; that in the pioneer days of our own country 
the hardy trappers and the Indians on the Western 
plains lived almost entirely on meat ; that the rice-eating 
Hindus are governed by the meat-eating English ; that 
some athletic contests may be won by vegetarians, but 
that in the Olympic Games and in other great athletic 

1 Individuals differ enormously in the kinds of bacteria that grow in 
the intestines and in the amount of poisons formed by them, and these 
substances are often abundant in the intestines of animals that live on a 
vegetable diet as v^^ell as in the intestines of meat-eating animals. Never- 
theless, it is true that in the average case a diet of vegetables and milk 
causes small quantities of the poisons to be formed and a diet of meat 
and eggs causes an increased quantity of them to be formed. 



FOODS AXD HEALTH 315 

events the great majority of winners are flesh eaters; 
and that without a liberal protein allowance during 
winter weather many individuals suffer greatly from the 
cold. They grant that the body can live on two ounces 
a day of protein, but they think that it is not best to cut 
the supply down to the lowest possible point, arguing 
that while we might walk about with femurs half as 
strong as those we have, it is undoubtedly better to have 
bones in the thighs that are able to stand not only 
ordinary use but an extra strain ; that nature always 
provides a surplus, and that it may well be that the 
body enjoys its best health when it is given more protein 
than barely enough to repair its ordinary wastes. 

High-protein advocates are, of course, willing to 
grant that the grass-eating ox possesses great strength 
and that the elephant lives for a hundred years on a 
vegetable diet ; but they point out that the carnivorous 
lion also is noted for his strength and that the eagle 
lives a hundred years on a flesh diet. They urge, with 
great reasonableness, that man has been testing foods 
for thousands of years, and the result of all this ex- 
perience is not lightly to be set aside. They also 
rightly insist that until we know more of the wonderful 
processes that go on within our cells it is unwise to 
accept unproved theories in regard to the diet or to fol- 
low any fads in selecting our food. 

A moderate allowance of protein wisest. In the pres- 
ent state of our know^ledge, the safest plan to follow in 
regard to the protein in the diet is to take a moderate 
amount. We should eat moderately of meat, beans, 
^ggs, and other protein foods, and make up the re- 
mainder of our diet from milk, butter, grains, vegetables, 



3l6 KEEPING THE LAWS 

and fruits. Recent experiments have proved that a 
certain protein which is abundant in corn will keep a 
young animal alive but will not cause it to grow,^ and 
that it requires more of the protein of corn or wheat to 
keep a man from losing weight than is required of meat 
or milk protein.^ New facts like these are constantly 
being discovered, and we do not as yet know enough 
of the nutrition of the body to make it safe for us to 
venture far from the path of common practice in the 
use of foods. 

Foods for energy. Not only must the body have the 
protein and the mineral that it needs for building pur- 
poses to keep it in health, but it must also be supplied 
with foods to furnish it with heat and strength. The 
body can use for this purpose any protein that is not 
needed for building material, but proteins are expensive 
foods, and, as we have seen, it is not wise to eat too 
heavily of these foods. The thing to do, therefore, is 
to eat the proteins that we need for building material 

1 Young rats that had been kept for 300 days without any increase in 
size began to grow at once when given a proper diet. They reached full 
size, and the length of their lives seemed to be increased by their delayed 
development, as they outlived their companions that were allowed to ma- 
ture at the ordinary age. 

2 One experimenter found the amounts of certain proteins needed 
daily to protect him from loss of weight to be as follows : Meat protein, 
30 grams ; rice protein, 34 grams ; potato protein, 'fi grams ; bean 
protein, 54 grams ; corn protein, 102 grams. The explanation of these 
results lies in the fact that it is not the proteins themselves, but certain 
substances into which they are split, that are used as building materials by 
the cells, and when some proteins are digested they yield only in very 
small amounts certain necessary kinds of building stones. For this reason 
it requires more of such proteins to support the body than of other pro- 
teins that yield all the different building materials in the proportions 
needed by the cells. 



FOODS AND HEALTH 317 

and then take enough fats, starches, and sugars to give 
us plenty of heat and strength. Bread, grains, potatoes, 
butter, sugar, and fat meats are the foods on which we 
mainly depend for our energy. Usually we can trust 
our appetites to tell us when we have had enough of 
these foods. There are, however, two points in connec- 
tion with them that may be of importance to the health. 

Large quantities of sugar injurious to the digestive 
organs. In his wild state man secured most of his 
sugar by eating starchy foods and digesting them to 
malt sugar. Now he prepares great quantities of sugar 
and uses it in his food, but the sugar that comes from 
cane and beets is cane sugar and not malt sugar. This 
sugar, when taken in large quantities, is very irritating 
to the stomach, and because in large amounts it is not 
a natural food for man, we have but a small quantity of 
the enzyme that digests it. When a large amount of 
sugar is eaten, therefore, it may remain for a long time 
undigested in the small intestine, and when this occurs 
the sugar is likely to be fermented by bacteria and in- 
jurious acids formed from it. Sugar should be taken 
in moderate quantities, and it should be mixed with 
other foods and not eaten at a time when it will form a 
thick, sirupy solution in an otherwise empty stomach. 
A moderate quantity of candy eaten at the close of a 
meal has a very different effect on the digestive system 
from a large quantity taken before a meal. 

Fats. Fats hinder stomach digestion, and except in 
very cold weather few persons can take a daily ration 
of more than three and a half ounces of fat without bad 
results. Persons who suffer from acid stomachs are 
advised to eat liberally of fatty foods, and about two 



3l8 KEEPING THE LAWS 

ounces of fat should be included in the average daily 
diet. Certain individuals who refuse to eat butter, fat 
meat, olive oil, or other fatty foods, live on very small 
quantities of fat, and get their energy almost entirely 
from carbohydrates. This leaves the lipase without 
any work to do and throws a heavy task on the starch- 
digesting enzymes, and it is not so likely to give a Vv^ell- 
ordered digestion as a mixed diet. It is also believed 
that the cells of the body keep in better health when 
part of their nourishment is supplied in the form of fat ; 
that persons who eat little fat are more subject to germ 
diseases, especially tuberculosis, than are those who eat 
reasonable quantities of fatty foods. ^ 

Eating vegetables beneficial to the health. Coarse 
vegetable foods like string beans, cabbage, cauliflower, 
carrots, turnips, potatoes, beets, radishes, asparagus, 
lettuce, celery, and spinach are very necessary to the 
health, because they furnish minerals and the coarse, 
bulky refuse that is needed in the intestine. These are 
the foods that are least palatable to most persons, and 
they are the ones that are most frequently left out of 
the diet. One difficulty in getting enough of these 
vegetables into the diet is that in the country the family 
garden is often neglected and a sufficient variety of 
them is not produced. Another difficulty is that in 
towns and cities these vegetables are often needlessly 
allowed to wilt in stores and markets, and their tender- 

^ Fat is considered the most important part of the diet in tuberculosiSc 
Outdoor life in this disease is more beneficial in cold climates than in 
warm climates and more beneficial in winter than in summer. Some 
physicians think that this is because in winter the exposure to the cold 
increases the appetite for fat. 



FOODS AND HEALTH 319 

ness is lost before they are cooked. The chief difficulty, 
however, is that only a few persons understand how to 
cook vegetables so that they will come to the table with 
the attractive flavors and odors that an expert vegetable 
cook can bring out. Because it is a difficult art to do 
this, many housewives give their attention to the easier 
and simpler tasks of cooking meats and of making pies, 
cakes, and desserts, and serve on their tables vegetables 
cooked in an unappetizing way. It is very important 
that the proper attention be given to the raising and 
preparation of these foods, and every young person 
should learn to eat all the different kinds of vegetables 
that are served in his home. 

A plan for getting a proper diet. Since the very life 
of the body centers around the food from which the 
cells build their living substances and from which they 
get their energy, it is easy to understand that the 
question of diet is the most important problem of 
all hygiene. It is not possible to give any simple rule 
that will always be a safe guide in eating, but the 
best single rule to follow in selecting a diet is to eat 
many different kinds of foods. As far as it is possible 
to do so, make it a rule to eat at each meal one food 
rich in protein, like lean meat, eggs, beans, or cheese ; 
one or more starchy foods like breakfast foods, 
bread, macaroni, or potatoes ; some fatty food Hke 
butter, fat meat, or nuts ; some coarse vegetable food 
like cabbage, asparagus, turnips, or beets ; a moderate 
amount of some sweet food like sugar, sirup, preserves, 
jelly, honey, cake, or a sweet dessert ; and, if it agrees 
with you, drink a glass of milk with each meal. Follow 
this plan, and you will probably not be tempted to eat too 



320 



KEEPING THE LAWS 



heavily of any one kind of food and will supply your body 
with all the different materials that it needs. It is very 
important to follow some plan that will cause a variety of 
foods to be eaten ; for experience has proved that per- 




ries. 119, 120, and 121. Healthful sports and games do much to prevent 

constipation. 

sons who fall into the habit of eating only a few foods 
frequently fail to supply their bodies with some of the 
materials that they need.^ 

Constipation a deadly enemy to health. No matter 
what diet is eaten, unless the wastes are rapidly moved 
along the intestine and promptly cleaned out of the 
body, ill-smelling gases and poisons will be formed 
in the refuse matter in the large intestine. These 
will be absorbed into the blood and cause bad breath, 
headaches, and other evil consequences. In select- 
ing a diet, enough coarse food should be chosen to give 
large amounts of bulky refuse matter. This will assist 
in causing the wastes to be moved rapidly along the 
intestine. Other important points in the prevention 
and cure of constipation are vigorous exercise, especially 

1 The plan of dividing foods into the above five groups and of eating 
at each meal one or more foods from each group w^as suggested by Dr. 
C. F. Langv^^orthy of the United States Department of Agriculture. 



FOODS AND HEALTH 32 I 

bendings of the body and movements of the legs that 
will press the digestive organs about and help the 
circulation of the blood through them ; massage of the 
abdomen, which also helps the circulation of the blood 
through the stomach, liver, and intestines ; a daily cool 
or cold bath ; attending to emptying the bowels regu- 
larly at a certain hour each day^; eating foods like 
fruits, corn meal, and graham flour, which have a natu- 
ral laxative effect; and drinking large quantities of 
water, especially at bedtime. A few physicians now 
understand how to treat successfully patients suffering 
from constipation, and any one who suffers ill-health 
month after month because of poisons produced in his 
own body should, if possible, put himself in charge of a 
physician who is especially qualified to treat this trouble. 
The cost of food. The object of eating is to supply 
the body with building material, heat, and strength. To 
make sure that all the needs of the body are supplied, 
we must eat a variety of foods ; we cannot live on two 
or three foods, no matter how cheap they may be. It 
is possible, however, to supply the needs of the body 
with high-priced foods or with other foods that may 
be purchased at a much lower rate. For example, the 
same amount of energy that can be purchased in wheat 
flour for four cents costs ninety-five cents in oysters, and 

^ An X-ray examination of animals shows that before the bowels are 
emptied the part of the large intestine which runs across the body is raised 
up partially on end and the part which runs up the right side of the body 
is dragged across to take the place of the transverse portion. It takes 
about 20 minutes for these changes in the position of the large intestine 
to be brought about. It is possible to train the nerves that control the 
intestine until they will set the muscles of the intestine in action at regular 
times, and it is exceedingly important to do this. 



322 KEEPING THE LAWS 

protein costs nine times as much in canned corn as in 
corn meal. The average family is not wealthy, and 
according to the best statistics available it is slightly 
undernourished. We cannot go into the question of 
food costs further than to point out that in our country 
millions of dollars might be saved each year and the 
health of miUions of people greatly improved if those 
purchasing the food supplies of families understood 
how to secure the most nourishment for the money that 
they have to expend. In general, grains, potatoes, 
beans, and sugar are cheap foods ; fresh fruits, fresh 
vegetables, fish, and oysters are expensive foods; and 
meats, milk, and eggs are intermediate in price. The 
table on page 394 shows the cost of building materials 
and energy in some common foods. 

QUESTIONS 

How much protein is eaten daily by the average prosperous 
American or European ? Give some arguments for a low- 
protein diet based on the experience of some races and indi- 
viduals. 

Give five arguments against a high-protein diet. 

Give some arguments for a high-protein diet. In the light 
of our present knowledge, what is the wisest course to pursue 
with regard to the amount of protein we should eat ? What 
different foods should be eaten by a person who desires a 
moderately high-protein diet ? 

What foods should be used to supply the body with heat 
and strength ? Why is sugar injurious to the stomach and 
intestines, when eaten in large quantities ? What is the 
proper time to eat candy ? How much fat should be included 
in the daily ration ? Why is it bad to depend entirely upon 



FOODS AND HEALTH 323 

carbohydrate foods for energy and to exclude fatty foods from 
the diet ? 

Why are coarse vegetable foods necessary for the health ? 
Give some of the reasons why these foods are often omitted 
from the diet. Divide all the foods that you eat into five 
groups, and explain a plan of eating that would insure your 
taking a variety of foods. Why is it important that this be 
done ? 

Why is it necessary for the wastes to be promptly removed 
from the intestine ? How do coarse, bulky f6ods assist in 
this ? Give some important points in the prevention and 
cure of constipation. 

Name some cheap foods. Name some expensive foods. 
Name some that are moderately dear. How only is it pos- 
sible to secure a nourishing diet at a moderate cost ? 

References. The teacher who wishes a more thorough understanding 
of the nutrition of the body will find the following books helpful : Lusk's 
The Fu7idamental Basis of Nutrition (Yale University Press; 50 cents), 
or Lusk's Elements of the Science of Nutrition (W. B. Saunders Company, 
Philadelphia ; $3.CX)). Bulletin No. 28 of the United States Department 
of Agriculture (^The Chemical Composition of American Foodstuffs) con- 
tains very complete tables of food analyses and may be secured for 10 
cents from the Superintendent of Public Documents, Washington, D.C. 
Locke's Food Values (D. Appleton & Company; $1.25) gives in con- 
venient form the chemical and energy values of average helpings of pre- 
pared foods, and Gephart and Lusk's Analysis and Cost of Ready-to- Serve 
Foods {^fotirnal of American Medical Association^ Chicago ; 15 cents) is 
of especial value to those who eat in restaurants. 



CHAPTER NINETEEN 

THE TEETH 

In the Marion School of Cleveland, Ohio, 846 chil- 
dren were examined for defects of the teeth. A dental 
chart was made for each of the children, and from 
these charts, without seeing the children, forty of those 
in the grades from the fourth to the eighth that were 
most in need of dental care were selected. In May, 
19 10, these forty children were called together and it 
was explained to them that each one's teeth would be 
filled and put into perfect condition free of charge, and 
that each child would be given a five-dollar gold piece 
at Christmas, if only he would brush his teeth three 
times a day and chew his food thoroughly before swal- 
lowing it.^ Five of the children at once dropped out, 
not caring to be bothered about their teeth, and later 
eight more were dropped for not keeping their teeth 
clean ; so that only twenty-seven went through to the 
end of the experiment. 

Mental tests were given the children at the beginning 
of the experiment, to measure the quickness and power 
of their minds. These tests were repeated a year later 
at the close of the experiment. They showed that the 
minds of the children improved during the year on an 
average 99.8 per cent, which means that their power to 
do mental work practically doubled. Six of them grad- 
uated from the eighth grade in February instead of in 

1 The children were given toothbrushes and taught how to use them, 
and later were tested to see if they had really learned the proper way of 
washing the teeth. They were served a dinner at the school and shown 
how they ought to masticate their food before swallowing it. Their teeth 
were cleaned and the cavities in them filled by dentists, and when the 
child was suffering from ulcerated teeth or sore gums, these were treated. 

324 



THE TEETH 325 

June as they had expected ; one boy who had failed the 
year before passed through two entire grades in the year ; 
another, who was always in trouble and was about to be 
sent to the truant school, became a manly and tractable 
lad and improved 204 per cent in his mental efificiency. 

The improvement in health was equally noticeable, 
for the digestive conditions of practically all the chil- 
dren were greatly improved, their complexions became 
clearer, and one girl who was weak and subject to 
headaches grew strong and robust and was freed from 
the headaches that had made life miserable for her. 
Undoubtedly the children had been suffering greatly 
because of the bad state of their teeth, and they im- 
proved in body and in mind when their teeth were put 
into good condition. 

How bad teeth injure the health. Bad teeth injure 
the health in two ways. In the first place, they cause 
the food to be swallowed in large pieces, which greatly 
delays digestion and, as we have already learned, causes 
poisons to be formed in the intestines through the growth 
of bacteria in the undigested portions of the food (page 
301). Decayed teeth also fill the food with germs which 
cause it to ferment and decay in the alimentary canal ; 
and when the teeth are ulcerated and the gums sore, 
not only is the digestion ruined but the whole body is 
poisoned by the pus that is swallowed with the food 
and the toxins that are absorbed directly from the dis- 
eased parts into the blood. Without a set of clean, 
sound teeth that can crush and grind the food into 
small pieces and pass it on without loading it with bac- 
teria, good digestion and good health are hardly possible. 
Artificial teeth have only one tenth the biting force of 



326 



KEEPING THE LAWS 



enamel 



dentine 



the natural teeth, and at best they are but a poor substi- 
tute for the grinding apparatus that nature has given us. 
The structure of a tooth. A tooth is composed of a 
crown, a neck^ and one or more roots. The main bulk 

of the tooth is composed 
of dentine^ or ivory, a sub- 
stance harder than the 
most compact bone. The 
crown is covered by a coat 
of enamel. This sub- 
stance is very hard, but 
brittle like glass. The 
enamel can easily be 
broken by biting on hard 
objects and it may be 
cracked by very hot food 
or drink taken into the 
mouth. If it is once 
broken off it is never re- 
placed, and without the 




bundle of nerves, 
veins, and arter- 
ies for pulp 



Fig. 122. A section through a tooth 

showing its structure and how it is fastened COVCring of enamel OVCr it 

into the jaw-bone. ^^^ ^^^^j^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^^^ 

The roots of the teeth stand in sockets in the jaw- 
bones and are covered by a layer of bone-like cement 
Lining the socket in which the root stands is a layer of 
connective tissue that fastens together the root and the 
bone of the jaw. In the center of the tooth is the pulp 
cavity, a little chamber containing nerves and blood ves- 
sels. Break open the tooth of an animal, and you will 
easily find the enamel, the dentine, the pulp cavity, and 
the little root canals through which the nerves and blood 
vessels enter from the jaw-bone. 



THE TEETH 327 

The teeth preserved by keeping them clean. Decay 

of the teeth is caused by the bacteria that grow in the 
food particles that stick to the teeth and lodge between 
them.^ Since this is the case, it is evident that the way 
to preserve the teeth is to keep them clean, so that bac- 
teria will not find a home among them. The teeth 
should be brushed both inside and outside after a meal. 
Pure soap or a good tooth powder assists in cleansing 
them, and a moderately stiff brush should be used. The 
gums as well as the teeth should be brushed, for if the 
gums are kept in good condition, the teeth are much more 
likely to remain healthy. At first the gums may bleed 
when the brush touches them, but they will soon become 
harder and firmer and be able to endure the cleaning. 

Food that has lodged between the teeth should be 
carefully removed after eating. This point is important 
because decay nearly always starts between the teeth, 
where the food lodges. Some dentists recommend that 
the food be removed with dental floss, but in the hands 
of the average person a toothpick is more effective. A 
quill pick is less likely to injure the gums than a wooden 
or a metal one. 

Some useful hints 
on cleansing the teeth. 
At least two minutes 
should be devoted to 
washing the teeth 

after each meal For ^^^* ^'^^' ^ curved brush with the bristles 
. * longer at the ends cleans tlie teeth better than 

cleansmg them, pre- a straight brush. 

1 It is thought that the bacteria cause the decay by forming acids which eat 
away the mineral matter of the teeth. Whether this idea is correct or not, 
it is certainly true that bacteria, in some way, are responsible for the decay. 




328 KEEPING THE LAWS 

cipitated chalk and powdered orris root, v/hich may be 
purchased from any druggist, make a useful powder. 
Charcoal, pumice stone, or other gritty substances should 




Fig. 124. One half of the permanent set of teeth. 

not be used, as they scratch the teeth and leave little 
grooves in the surface in which food and bacteria col- 
lect. A curved brush with the bristles longer at the 
ends cleans the teeth better than a straight brush, and 
the gums should be brushed over the tooth and not 
pushed up so as to leave the roots bare. Rinsing water 
about vigorously in the mouth and driving it through 
between the teeth removes many small particles of 
food that have lodged among the teeth, and this should 
always be done after the teeth have been brushed. 
Washing the teeth, gums, and tongue and rinsing out 
the mouth before breakfast saves the stomach from 
a host of bacteria, and is an exceedingly important hy- 
gienic practice.^ 

^ The coating that comes on the tongue when the digestion is disordered 
is a growth of bacteria. At all times there are many bacteria growing on 
the tongue, gums, and inside of the mouth. 



THE TEETH 329 

The temporary teeth. The jaws in childhood are too 
small to hold the large teeth that we need in later life. 
In early life we have, therefore, a set of twenty small 
teviporary tcctJi, This set is composed of four incisors^ 
two cani7ies, and four molars in each jaw (Fig. 126). 
The incisors are flat and chisel-like for biting off the 
food. The canines are more round and pointed, and in 
the dog and other carnivorous animals they are used as 
weapons and for tearing flesh. The molars are broad, 
square teeth with sharp cusps, or points, and wide sur- 
faces for crushing and grinding the food. About the 
sixth year the temporary teeth begin to drop out, and 
by the twelfth or fourteenth year they have all been 
replaced by permanent teeth. 

The permanent teeth. There are thirty-two perma- 
nent teeth. In each jaw there are four incisors and 
two canines that replace 
the incisors and canines 
of the temporary teeth ; 
four bicuspids in place of 
the temporary molars ; 
and six molars that come ^^^- ^^5- The tooth on the right de- 

cayed, the roots were not absorbed, and 

in behind the space OCCU- the tooth had to be pulled to make room 

Died bv the temnorarv ^°^ ^^ permanent tooth. The tooth in 

•'^ ^ -^ the middle shows the roots partly ab- 

teeth. The first perma- sorbed. The roots of the tooth on the 

nent molars appear about ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ completely absorbed and 

. the tooth has dropped out. 

the sixth year. The third 

molars, or wisdom teeth, usually appear from the six- 
teenth to the twenty-first year, but in some persons these 
teeth never make their way through the gums.^ 

1 Sometimes when the wisdom teeth or other teeth fail to appear at the 
normal time it is because they have turned sideways in the jaw or have 





330 



KEEPING THE LAWS 




20-32 



Fig. 126. The upper temporary teeth of 
a child about three years old with the 
average time of eruption given in months. 
The lower teeth usually appear a few 
weeks earlier than the upper. The first 
permanent molars, which at this time are 
being formed in the jaws, are shown be- 
hind the temporary teeth. 



The importance of caring for the temporary teeth. The 

first reason for caring for the temporary teeth is that 

they themselves are nec- 
essary for the health ; for 
if they are allowed to de- 
cay, the child will form 
the habit of bolting his 
food ; the digestion will 
be deranged by the germs 
that are swallowed ; and 
the nervous system and 
the disposition will be 
damaged by the pain 
from the toothache that 
the child will be com- 
pelled to endure. For 
the sake of the health during the years of childhood and 
to prevent the forming of wrong eating habits, the tem- 
porary teeth should have the best of care. 

The second reason for caring for the temporary teeth 
is to prevent the permanent teeth from coming in irreg- 
ularly. The permanent teeth begin to form long before 
birth at the roots of the temporary teeth, and by the end 
of the third year even the wisdom teeth are formed in 
the jaws. These teeth then gradually grow and harden, 
and the roots of the temporary teeth disappear before 
them (Fig. 125). Finally, the roots of the temporary 

become tightly wedged among the roots of the other teeth. Teeth that 
are lodged in the jaw in this way are called impacted teeth, and there are 
many cases on record of persons who suffered greatly from nervous troubles 
because of the pressure such teeth were exerting. If the teeth do not ap- 
pear at the proper time and there is any trouble with the health, impacted 
teeth should be looked for. The X-ray is used in making the examination. 



THE TEETH 



331 



incisors 



teeth are entirely absorbed and the first teeth drop out, 
leaving the places they occupied to the permanent teeth. 

If the temporary 
teeth are allowed to 
decay, their roots are 
not absorbed before 
the permanent teeth. 
The second teeth, 
therefore, either re- 
main buried in the 



canine 
bicuspids 



molars 




Fig. 127. The upper permanent teeth of a man 
twenty-six years old, with the average time of 
eruption given in years. The lower teeth usu- 
ally appear two or three months earher than the 
corresponding upper ones. 



jaws or appear m an 
irregular line, some 
inside and some out- 
side of the line of the 
first teeth. Another 
difficulty caused by decay and loss of the temporary 
molars is that when the first permanent molars come in 
they move forward and take positions that belong to the 
bicuspids and there is then not enough room for the per- 
manent bicuspids. For the sake of the permanent teeth, 
therefore, the temporary set should have the best dental 
care, and if for any reason they have been allowed to de- 
cay, a dentist should be consulted when it is time for the 
second teeth to appear. 

The importance of caring for the first permanent molars. 
The first permanent teeth, which come in about the sixth 
year, behind the temporary molars, are often mistaken 
for temporary teeth. These molars have deep grooves 
in their surfaces in which the food lodges, and they come 
into the mouths of many children before the habit of 
washing the teeth has been formed. They are therefore 
especially Hable to decay. They should be filled at once 



332 KEEPING THE LAWS 

if cavities appear in them, because they are not replaced 
when lost, and without them the jaws do not grow in 
length as they should. Count the double teeth in the 
mouth of a six- or seven-year-old child, and if there are 
three of them on one side of the jaw, the back one is a 
permanent molar. 

The importance of visiting the dentist. When a shoe 
gets a hole in it, the thing to do is to take it to the shoe- 

maker and have it 
^Uciispids patched. When a tooth 
.^st molar gets a hole in it, the 
thing to do is to go to 
the dentist and have it 
r^ filled. There is more 
'molar reason for having a tooth 
mended than for having 
bicuspids a shoe mended, because 

^M • '^f • •'^^K ^^""V^ ^t^^ ^T ^'? we can buy new shoes, 

old. The jaw-bones have been cut away to -^ ' 

show the permanent teeth growing at the while a tOOth Once lost 
roots of the temporary set. ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^ replaced. 

Teeth should be filled while the cavities in them are yet 
small, both because this plan preserves them and because 
it is more economical and less painful than waiting until 
the cavities have enlarged and a great part of the tooth 
has been eaten away. All over the land people are suffer- 
ing from toothaches and are paying for expensive crown 
and bridge work, when they could have escaped the suffer- 
ing and could have preserved their teeth by spending a 
mere fraction of the same money at an earlier date for 
small fillings. The teeth should be examined at least 
twice a year by a dentist, and any small cavities in them 
should be filled. 



tncisors 



tnctsors 




THE TEETH 333 

Tartar injurious to the teeth. In many mouths a 
hard, dark-colored substance called tartar collects on the 
teeth near the line of the gums. This is believed to be 
due to bacteria in the mouth, and the teeth may be kept 
free from it by being kept clean. After tartar has col- 
lected on the teeth, it should be removed by a dentist; 
for if it is allowed to remain, it will cause the gums to 
shrink and leave the roots of the teeth bare, thus making 
them very liable to decay. This receding of the gums 
also, in some cases, leads to ulceration of the membranes 
about the roots of the teeth, and causes all the teeth to 
become loose in their sockets.^ Tartar should, there- 
fore, be attended to before the gums are driven below 
the necks of the teeth ; for if the gums once recede 
from the roots, they will remain in this condition 
through life. 

Other points in the care of the teeth. Sticky foods like 
oatmeal and mashed potatoes cling to the teeth and cause 
them to decay. Hard foods like cornbread and bacon 
clean the teeth and give the gums the exercise that is 
needed to keep up the circulation through them. Every 
diet, therefore, should contain some tough, solid material 
into which the eater can set his teeth. Sugar left 
among the teeth ferments easily and causes decay. For 
this reason eating candy at all hours of the day, so that 
the crevices among the teeth are kept filled with it, is 
almost sure to cause decay. 

Straightening irregular teeth. Often the permanent 
teeth come in irregularly and are turned forward in 

^ The damage done by infections about the roots of the teeth has 
proved to be far greater than any one had imagined. The importance of 
their care, therefore, can hardly be exaggerated (pages 377 and 381). 




334 KEEPING THE LAWS 

front because the temporary teeth have been allowed to 
decay or because adenoids or nasal growths have kept 
the bones of the jaws and of the roof of the mouth 

from growing enough 
to make room for the 
teeth. When for these 
or any other reasons 
the teeth are irregu- 
^,. ^ , , , lar, a dentist who 

Fig. 129. This shows how the upper teeth j 1 

should close on the lower teeth. {After a Understands hoW tO 

photograph from ^' The Practical Ortho- strai^^h ten them should 
do7itistr) ^ , 

at once be consulted. 
By putting pressure on the teeth the bones may be made 
to grow larger and the arch of the jaw expanded until 
the teeth have sufficient room. 

Figure 130 gives an idea of the changes that a good 
dentist can make in the appearance of a person whose 
mouth is spoiled by irregular or protruding teeth. The 
work of straightening the permanent teeth ought to be 
begun as soon as they appear, and not delayed until all 
of them are in the mouth, as is often advised. A tooth 
that has been crowded out of line ought not to be pulled, 
but the circle of the teeth should be widened until there 
is room for all. 

Defective teeth due to illness and to a lack of calcium 
in the diet. A tooth is first built up by the growth of 
a **bud," or little group of cells of the mucous mem- 
brane which covers the jaw. It is then hardened by 
having calcium deposited in it. This hardening of the 
teeth is going on all through childhood, and severe cases 
of scarlet fever, measles, diphtheria, and other illnesses 
may interfere with the deposition of lime and cause the 



THE TEETH 



335 



teeth to be soft and ill-formed when they come through 
the gums months or years later. 

Defective teeth may also be caused by a lack of cal- 
cium in the diet, as we have already pointed out (page 
286). It is therefore especially important to the teeth 




Fig. 130. Two cases in which the teeth needed and received the care of a 
good dendst. {After a photograph from " The Practical Orthodontist.'') 



that children be guarded from disease and that an abun- 
dance of lime be supplied in the food during the early 
years of life. The question of lime in the diet should 
be given special care when babies are brought up on 
any food other than milk. 

Care of the mouth of an infant. Little babies often 
suffer from sore mouth. This disease is caused by 
germs and is usually brought on by lack of cleanliness. 
It should be promptly attended to by a physician, be- 
cause it not only causes suffering and nervousness in 
the child but also fills the alimentary canal with germs 
and ruins the digestion. When the teeth are making 
their way through the gums, the mouth should be ex- 
amined to see that there are no little ulcers on the gums 



336 KEEPING THE LAWS 

when the teeth are cutting through. If these are found, 
a physician or a dentist should be consulted ; for it is 
very unwise to allow a child to go on swallowing the 
many thousands of pus-forming germs that come from 
the ulcers. One of the best means of preventing trouble 
in the mouth of a baby is to wipe out the mouth, after 
feeding, with a clean cloth that has been dipped in a sat- 
urated solution of borax or boric acid. 

Decayed teeth very common. Among the 846 children 
examined in the Marion School in Cleveland, only three 
had perfect teeth. Examinations of many thousands of 
other children show that often as many as 95 per cent 
of them are in need of dental care. The great majority 
of young persons lose their first permanent molars before 
they are twenty years of age, and it is undoubtedly true 
that no other part of the body is so often defective as 
the teeth. You should be on guard, therefore, to pre- 
serve the precious heritage which nature has given you 
in the form of your teeth ; for your chances of health in 
later years depend very largely on the care that you give 
your teeth now. Keep them clean by all means, and if 
there are small cavities in them, have them filled at once. 

QUESTIONS 

Describe the experiment in the Marion School of Cleveland, 
Ohio, and give the results. How do bad teeth injure the 
health? Why are artificial teeth inferior to the natural 
teeth ? Name the parts of a tooth. Of what is the body of a 
tooth composed? With what is the crown covered? How 
may the enamel be injured ? What results usually follow 
breaking the enamel ? How are the teeth fastened in the 
sockets? Where is the pulp cavity? What does it contain? 



THE TEErn 337 

What causes decay of the teeth ? I low may decay be pre- 
vented ? How often should the teeth be brushed ? Why is it 
beneficial to brush the gums ? Why should particles of food 
that lodge between the teeth be removed ? How may a good 
tooth powder be made ? Why should gritty substances not be 
used to clean the teeth ? Why is it important to wash the 
teeth, gums, and tongue before breakfast ? 

How many teeth are there in the temporary set ? Name 
and describe the different kinds. How^ many teeth are there 
in the permanent set ? When does the first permanent molar 
appear ? Give two reasons for caring for the temporary teeth. 
Why are the first permanent molars especially liable to decay? 
Why is their loss harmful? Why should a dentist be visited 
frequently ? 

What is tartar ? Why is it injurious to the teeth ? How may 
the teeth be kept free from it ? How may illness during child- 
hood injure the teeth ? What element needed for building 
the teeth is sometimes lacking in the diet of children ? Why 
are hard foods better for the teeth than sticky foods ? Why 
is constant candy eating injurious ? 

How do adenoids and nasal growths affect the teeth ? When 
babies have sore mouth, what is usually the cause? What trouble 
should be guarded against while the teeth are coming through 
the gums ? How can trouble in a baby's mouth be prevented.'* 

How many children in the Cleveland school had sound 
teeth ? Cite some facts to show how common defective teeth 
are. 



CHAPTER TWENTY 



TOBACCO 




Fig. 131. The peace pipe. 



When Columbus returned from the West Indies, he 
reported that the natives carried with them to kindle fires 
a brand made by rolling in corn husks the leaves of a 
certain herb which they cultivated. He also reported 
that they perfumed themselves with the leaves of this 
herb, and that no treaty of peace could be ratified among 
the Indians without smoking the herb in a pipe, because 
they believed that when the smoke of its burning as- 
cended to heaven the Great Spirit smelled a sweet savor 
and was pleased. 

The use of this Indian herb became popular in England 
through the influence of Sir Walter Raleigh, and the 
custom of using it spread rapidly through Europe in 
the seventeenth century. At first it was thought to have 
medicinal value, but in a short time men of inteUigence 
and high position came to think of it as a dangerous 
drug and became alarmed as to the consequences that 

338 



TOBACCO 339 

would follow its widespread use.^ A great movement 
against the new custom then sprang up over all the 
known world. In Turkey the pipes of smokers were 
thrust through their noses ; in Russia the noses of 
smokers were cut off, and those who repeated the offense 
were put to death ; the church threatened the users of 
the weed with excommunication ; and King James of 
England issued a protest against its use, in which he 
declared it to be '' a custom loathsome to the eye, hate- 
ful to the nose, harmful to the brain, dangerous to the 
lungs, and in the black, stinking tume thereof nearest 
resembling the horrible Stygian smoke of the pit that is 
bottomless." 

Why the habit of using tobacco is so widespread. In 
spite of all the opposition that has been offered to it, 
tobacco is now used over practically the whole world. 
In the United States the people spend for it more than 
four hundred millions of dollars yearly. Of course, 
if people spend their money in this way, it means 
that they will be compelled to go without food, clothing, 
furniture, books, music, and other things that for their 
health, comfort, and richness of life they ought to have ; 
it means millions of extra years of labor for a people 
who are already overworked. In India all ages and 
both sexes are constant smokers, and in China many of 
the workmen carry with them as their constant compan- 

1 During the seventeenth century the plague, or " Black Death,'* 
ravaged Europe, and it was generally believed that smoking was a safe- 
guard against this disease, and even the boys in the schools were made to 
" smoak." It is possible that there was some foundation for this belief; 
for the plague is spread by fleas that come from plague-infected rats, and 
it may be that fleas dislike the odor of tobacco that is present on the 
clothes and skin of tobacco users. 



340 KEEPING THE LAWS 

ions a supply of tobacco and a pipe. Yet in India and 
in China the great mass of the people toil for a miserable 
wage that will hardly keep them alive, and in years of 
crop failure hundreds of thousands of them actually 
perish for lack of food. 

Why do men put this extra burden on themselves ? 
Why did the Indians that Columbus saw perfume them- 
selves with the odor of tobacco } Why do men now 
engage in the seemingly foolish custom of drawing 
smoke into the mouth and puffing it out again ? Let 
us search out the answer to this problem. 

Nicotin. There are certain drugs that produce such 
pleasurable effects on the mind that people form the 
habit of taking them to experience these effects. Among 
these drugs may be mentioned hasheesh, v/hich comes 
from Indian hemp and is used by the people of India. 
It produces a kind of intoxication and fills the mind 
with brilliant ideas of grandeur and power, causing 
the most pitiful specimen of humanity to feel himself 
a very king among men. Alcohol has something of 
this same effect, for it deadens the judgment and the 
critical powers of the mind and causes a person to regard 
his own efforts as brilliant, even when there is no ground 
for a high opinion of what he has done. Opium deadens 
the sensibilities to pain and produces sensations of de- 
licious ease and luxury. Cocain, chloral, and a few 
other drugs produce effects that are pleasant to the 
mind, and men fall into the habit of taking them. The 
most widely used of all these drugs, however, is nicotin, 
which is present in tobacco. The sensations produced 
by it will be discussed in a later paragraph. 

Nicotin a narcotic. Physicians speak of certain drugs 



TOBACCO 341 

as stiinulants and of certain others as na^xotics. Stimu- 
lants quicken the action of the protoplasm of the cells ; 
they make the muscles contract more strongly and 
cause the nervous system to conduct impulses better 
and to control the body with a firmer hand. Narcotics 
deaden the nervous system and weaken its action ; they 
slacken the muscles and lessen their strength. Strych- 
nin is a good example of a stimulant. It is given by 
physicians when the heart action flags and when there 
is general weakness and collapse. Opium is an example 
of a narcotic. It is given by physicians to dull the 
senses to pain and to quiet those whose nervous sys- 
tems have been overwrought. The nicotin that is in 
tobacco is a narcotic, and it is so strong that a few drops 
of it introduced into the mouth will paralyze the nervous 
system and stop the beating of the heart.^ We shall 
now discuss some of the more important effects of 
nicotin on the body. 

The influence of tobacco on growth. There are many 
indications that the processes within the cells that cause 
growth differ from the processes that go on during the 
repair of the protoplasm. That is, in cells and in 
young people that are growing, there are processes 
going on that are not going on in cells and in persons 

1 Tobacco is from i to 4 per cent nicotin. In chewing, only a small 
part of the nicotin in the tobacco is absorbed into the body, and in 
smoking, most of the nicotin is broken into other compounds. It is 
probable that these other compounds produce a large part of the effect 
that follows smoking. That men smoke to obtain the drug effects of 
nicotin and of the compounds that come from the nicotin, and not for 
the physical and mental pleasure of the smoking, is shown by the fact that 
a smoker is not satisfied with tobacco from which the nicotin has been 
extracted. 



342 KEEPING THE LAWS 

that have reached their full size.^ Tobacco seems to 
have an especially evil effect on the processes of 
growth ; for without doubt it is most injurious to the 
young. Two young guinea pigs that were made to 
inhale tobacco smoke from the fourth day after birth, 
on the forty-fourth day weighed 174 and i6g grams 
respectively instead of 330 grams, which is the normal 
weight for a guinea pig of this age. One of them died 
on the forty -fourth day, and the other was not subjected 
to further inhalations. At the end of the third month 
this animal weighed only 295 grams. The normal 
weight at that age is 485 grams, so the animal was still 
stunted and far below its normal size. 

So generally is it known that cigarette smoking inter- 
feres with the processes of growth and stunts the young 
that most of our states have laws forbidding the sale of 
cigarettes to boys below a certain age. In 1889 the 
Japanese government became alarmed because of the 
small size of some of its citizens, and after an investi- 
gation of the effects of tobacco passed a law which 
was worded thus : ** Smoking of tobacco by persons 
under the age of twenty is prohibited." Professor 
Seaver of Yale University found that of the young men 
entering Yale during a period of ten years, the smokers 
averaged 15 months older than the non-smokers, and 
that notwithstanding their greater age they were one 
third of an inch shorter and had slightly less lung capac- 
ity. The boy who wishes to become large and strong 

^ By experiments on animals it has been found possible to feed them 
in a way that will keep them alive, but will not cause growth in them. 
This indicates that the processes of growth and of maintenance are 
different. 



TOBACCO 343 

should let cigarettes alone during his growing years, for 
there is every reason to believe that young smokers fail 
to reach their full development either of body or of mind. 

The effect of tobacco on the muscles. As we should 
expect, tobacco weakens and relaxes the muscles. Pro- 
fessor Lombard of the University of Michigan tested 
the strength and endurance of his finger muscles on 
four days on which he smoked five cigars daily ; then 
on four days on which he abstained from smoking ; 
then again on four days when he smoked as on the first 
days. He found that on the days he smoked, his 
muscles had lost on an average 41 per cent of their 
working power. 

The fact that tobacco softens and slackens the 
muscles was so well known before the days of chloro- 
form that patients were prepared for certain surgical 
operations by giving them tobacco to bring about a 
relaxed condition of the muscles. At the present time, 
it is well known among athletes that smoking lowers 
the strength, and athletes who are in training are not 
allowed to indulge in tobacco. Cigarettes will surely 
kill the baseball pitcher's speed ; they shorten the flight 
of the football player's punt ; and the tobacco user's 
muscles weaken and fail when the crowning effort of the 
race comes. 

The effect of tobacco on the nervous system. The 
most serious effects of tobacco are on the nervous sys- 
tem. It interferes with the control of the muscles, and 
it damages the mind, as we should expect a narcotic to 
do. The trembling that may be seen in the hands of 
almost any one who smokes cigarettes to excess shows 
in a very marked way how tobacco interferes with 



344 KEEPING THE LAWS 

the control of the muscles. Because of this effect, 
tobacco users are not good marksmen with the rifle, 
and many of them are unable to do delicate work. The 
following statement by Luther Burbank, the great 
plant breeder and nurseryman of California, illustrates 
this point: 

" To assist me in my work of budding — work that is 
as accurate and exacting as watch making — I have a 
force of some twenty men. I discharge men from this 
force at the first show of incompetency. Some time 
ago my foreman asked me if I took pains to inquire into 
the habits of my men. On being answered in the nega- 
tive, he surprised me by saying that the men I found 
unable to do the delicate work of budding invariably 
turned out to be smokers and drinkers. These men, 
while able to do the rough work of farming, call budding 
and other delicate work * puttering ' and have to give it 
up, owing to inability to concentrate their nerve force. 
Even men who smoke one cigar a day I cannot intrust 
with some of my delicate work." 

The effect of tobacco on the mind is even more notice- 
able than its effect on muscular control. A study of the 
grades of 500 boys in private schools shows that the 
grades of smokers were on an average 12 to 15 per cent 
lower than the grades of non-smokers. Another set of 
statistics covering sixteen schools in different parts of 
the country and including 800 boys showed that the 
smokers had fallen on an average 17 to 28 per cent 
behind those who did not use the drug. A comparison 
of 50 smokers and 50 non-smokers chosen at random 
in Kansas State Agricultural College showed that the 
smokers had averaged 28 per cent lower in grades and 



TOBACCO 345 

that they had made 74 per cent of all the failures that 
were made by the 100 students. In every comparison 
of the scholarship records of tobacco users and non- 
tobacco users that has been made, the tobacco users 
stand far below the others in scholarship, and so com- 
mon is the belief that tobacco interferes with good intel- 
lectual work that many large corporations refuse to 
employ young men who use cigarettes. Judge Stubbs 
of Indiana gives a Hst of twenty-two great employers 
who follow this rule. The list includes Marshall Field 
& Co., John Wanamaker, and seven great railroads. 

How tobacco affects the mind. Tobacco affects the 
mind, so that the person using it learns less rapidly and 
thinks less clearly. Those who have used it for some 
time have a tendency to become nervous, restless, un- 
able to remain still for any length of time, and unable 
to keep their minds concentrated on any one subject. 
It is probable, however, that the main reason why to- 
bacco users as a class fall behind other men in intel- 
lectual work is that nicotin steals away ambition. Its 
first effect on the mind is to lull it to rest ; to make the 
smoker contented with himself and his achievements; 
to make him satisfied to sit and watch the smoke curl 
upward while other things take care of themselves.^ 

It is true, of course, that many energetic persons use 
tobacco, and that great numbers of effective brain 
workers srnoke, but nevertheless it is also true that the 
effects of tobacco on the mind are those given above. 

Other effects of tobacco on the body. Dyspepsia is 
very common among tobacco chewers who swallow 

^ Under the influence of tobacco, thought becomes reverie. 

— Victor Hugo. 



346 KEEPING THE LAWS 

small quantities of the juice and among those who dam- 
age their nervous systems by excessive smoking. An- 
other effect of the continued use of tobacco is to raise 
the blood pressure, which greatly increases the work of 
the heart. 

Smoking also has a bad effect on the air passages ; 
for the hot ammonia and other compounds in the smoke 
frequently cause '* smoker's sore throat," and cancer of 
the tongue and throat is more common among smokers 
than among non-smokers. Besides all these effects on 
separate organs of the body, the nicotin has a depress- 
ing and weakening effect on the body as a whole, just 
as it has an enfeebling and quieting effect on the mind. 

The effect of a moderate use of tobacco. In reading 
this chapter you must bear in mind that not all the evil 
effects of tobacco that have been described come at 
once, nor is it possible to observe all of them in every 
person who is a tobacco user. Small doses of any drug 
produce proportionately smaller effects than do larger 
doses, so persons who use tobacco moderately suffer 
less from it than do persons who use large amounts. 

Most of the evil effects of tobacco that we can ob- 
serve come when it is used to excess, or when it is used 
by the young, and we all know that there are men all 
about us who smoke and yet attend to their work. 
What will be the final result of the use of tobacco on 
the cells of these men we cannot say, for there are so 
many things that affect our health that it is not possible 
without special investigation to know what the effects of 
any one of these things are. We must have more knowl- 
edge before we can state exactly what are the effects of 
taking small amounts of nicotin into the body year after 



TOBACCO 347 

year, but we do know that if taken into the body in 
sufficient amounts, nicotin is a violent poison to the 
cells; that if constantly taken during the growing years, 
it has a very disastrous effect on development ; and that 
in any amount whatsoever it has a narcotic effect on the 
muscles and on the delicate cells of the brain. 

Why a boy should not use tobacco. " Your first duty 
in life is toward your aftei^self — the man you ought to 
be. So live that he in his time may be possible and 
actual. 

'' Far away in the years he is waiting his turn. His 
body, his brain, his soul, are in your boyish hands. He 
cannot help himself. 

" What will you leave for him } 

" Will it be a brain unspoiled by lust or dissipation, a 
mind trained to think and act, a nervous system true as 
a dial in its response to the truth about you ? Will you, 
Boy, let him come as a man among men in his time } 
Or will you throw away his inheritance before he has 
had the chance to touch it } Will you turn over to him 
a brain distorted, a mind diseased, a will untrained to 
action } 

*' Will you let him come, taking your place, gaining 
through your experiences, hallowed through your joys; 
building on them his own } 

" Or will you fling away his hope, decreeing wanton- 
like that the man you might have been shall never be .'^ 

'' This is your problem in life ; the problem of more 
importance to you than any or all others. How will 
you meet it, as a man or as a fool ? 

'' When you answer this, we shall know what use the 
world can make of you." — David Starr Jordan. 



348 KEEPING THE LAWS 

QUESTIONS 

Tell of the discovery of tobacco and its introduction into 
Europe. What different opinions were at first held about to- 
bacco ? Name some drugs that are commonly used for their 
pleasant effects. What effect has a stimulant ? a narcotic ? 
Is nicotin a stimulant or a narcotic ? 

At what time of life is tobacco especially injurious ? De- 
scribe the experiment in which young guinea pigs were made 
to inhale tobacco smoke. Why do most of our states prohibit 
the sale of -cigarettes to young persons ? Give the results of 
Professor Seaver's observations on students in Yale University. 

What effect has tobacco on the muscles? Describe the 
experiment performed by Professor Lombard. For what pur- 
pose was tobacco used by physicians before chloroform was 
known ? Why are athletes in training not allowed to use 
tobacco ? 

What effect has tobacco on the nervous system ? Why are 
users of tobacco not good marksmen ? Repeat what Luther 
Burbank said about his workmen. Give statistics showing 
mental progress made in schools by smokers and by non- 
smokers. What rule have many great employers made regard- 
ing cigarette smokers ? How does tobacco affect the mind ? 
the digestive system ? Discuss the effect upon the body of a 
moderate use of tobacco. 



CHAPTER TWENTY-ONE 

ALCOHOL 

A STANDARD tcxt on hygiene that was used in many 
of our medical colleges as late as 1890 taught that 
malaria was due to miasma from swamps ; that typhoid 
fever was connected with the rise and fall of ground 
water; that cholera seemed to be related to the tem- 
perature of the soil from four to six feet below the 
surface ; that erysipelas was due to impurities in the 
air ; that diphtheria was caused by sewer gas ; and that 
yellow fever was an air-borne disease. 

These ideas seem strange to us today, but the fact 
that they were current so recently even among medical 
men emphasizes the fact that in the past men have 
looked upon disease as something that comes upon us 
from without ; that they have thought of the causes of 
sickness as lying in the world about us. Now we have 
come to understand that the causes of ill health are to 
be sought for, not in the swamps and forests and changes 
of weather, but within the body itself; that it is what 
goes into the body rather than the distant outside world 
that is important in hygiene. We have learned that the 
great secret of health is to keep the lymph in which the 
cells are bathed free from poisons and impurities and to 
allow the cells to live their own lives in a natural way. 

Along with this new knowledge there has come a 
truer understanding of the uses of medicines and a 
greater care about taking into the lymph strong drugs 
whose effects on the delicate cells are not fully under- 
stood. The best physicians now realize that all medi- 
cines are foreign and unnatural substances in the lymph, 
which ought to be given only when there is good reason 

349 



350 KEEPING THE LAWS 

to believe that the body will be benefited by them ; and 
they are continually amazed at the reckless and ignorant 
way people pour patent medicines and other strong 
drugs in upon their cells. In this chapter we shall 
study the effects on the body of the use of alcohol, a 
powerful drug that is extensively used by the people of 
our country. 

Where alcohol comes from. Yeast is a small plant that 
lives on the skins of fruits and in very rich earth, and 
that often blows about in the air. The favorite food of 
this small plant is sugar, and when it falls into a liquid 
that contains sugar, it grows and multiplies very rapidly. 
In doing this it uses the sugar for food and breaks it up 
into water, carbon dioxid, and alcohol. This process is 
called fermentation. The alcohol in all the different 
kinds of intoxicating drinks that are used by man comes 
from the fermentation of sugar by yeast. 

Different kinds of alcoholic drinks. The natives of the 
tropics cut off the flower clusters of palm trees and col- 
lect the juice that pours out from the cut ends. This 
contains much sugar, and after it has been fermented 
it contains great quantities of alcohol. The Mexicans 
collect the juice of the agave ^ or century plant, in the 
same way and manufacture an intoxicating drink from 
it. Fruit juices are rich in sugar, and in temperate 
countries the people make wine by allowing them to 
ferment. Grapes, apples, currants, and blackberries 
are the fruits that are most commonly used for this 
purpose. In the manufacture of beer, grain is soaked 
in water until it sprouts, and the starch in it is digested 
to sugar and dissolved out in water. Yeast is then 
allowed to change the sugar in the liquid to alcohol. 



ALCOHOL 351 

Rum is made by fermenting molasses and distilling off 
the alcohol ; whisky is made by distilling the fer- 
mented liquid from sprouting grains ; and brandy is 
made by distilling fermented fruit juice.^ Alcoholic 
drinks have different tastes, according to the substances 
from which they are made, and some are stronger than 
others, but in all of them it is the alcohol itself that 
is the important thing. 

The use of alcohol injurious to the body. Is alcohol 
injurious to the body? In the past there has been 
a division of opinion on this point. Today we have 
come into an age of science, and we are substituting 
knowledge for guesswork in all fields of human thought. 
What are the facts in this case ? Does taking alcohol 
among the cells cause the body machine to run a longer 
or a shorter time, and is it laid up for repairs more days 
or fewer days in a year when alcohol is used ? The 
following statistics will give us some information on this 
question. 

The effect of alcohol on health. In Australia the work- 
men have benefit societies that pay wages for time lost 
on account of sickness. The records of these societies 
show that the members of societies that admit only ab- 
stainers lose but little over half as much time on account 
of illness as do the members of societies that admit 
drinkers. This indicates that the use of alcohol increases 
sickness. 

^ In distilling liquors, the liquid (the fruit juice or the water in which 
the grain has been soaked) that contains the fermented sugar is heated, 
and the vapor that comes from it is caught and condensed. The alcohol 
in the liquid is changed to vapor more easily than water, and the liquors 
that are manufactured in this way are strong in alcohol. 



352 KEEPING THE LAWS 

Alcohol and length of life. In 1909 forty-three of the 
leading life insurance companies of the United States 
and Canada decided to investigate collectively the death 
rates among different classes of their policyholders. The 
investigation included the histories of over 2,000,000 
lives, and was the most extensive study ever undertaken 
by life insurance companies. Among other figures col- 
lected were the following in regard to the mortality rates 
among users of alcoholic drinks : 

Mortality 

Moderate users (2 glasses of beer, one glass 

of whisky, or their equivalent, a day) . 118% 

Liberal users (steady, free, but not im- 
moderate use) 187% 

These figures indicate that 118 moderate users of 
alcoholic drinks and 187 liberal users of them die where 
the number of deaths that would naturally be expected 
is 100.^ It should be understood, however, that the in- 
formation as to the consumption of alcohol was obtained 
when the policy was applied for, and a portion of those 
included in the above results probably changed their 
habits later. Some of them doubtless came to drink 
more freely and some became total abstainers. 

In the above-mentioned investigation, no study of the 
mortality rate among abstainers was made, but one 

1 Insurance companies from their long experience are able to calculate 
about how many deaths may be expected to occur among a given number 
of persons of given ages. This average number is taken as loo %, and the 
rate among users of alcohol was compared with the average rate. It 
should be understood that the above comparisons are not between drinkers 
and abstainers, but between drinkers and all classes of the insured — 
drinkers and abstainers taken together. Heavy drinkers are not included, 
for these are rejected by all companies. 



ALCOHOL 353 

American company that made such a study secured the 
following data : 

Mortality 

Total abstainers 59% 

Rarely use , 71% 

Temperate 84% 

Moderate 125% 

These figures show a mortality rate among abstainers 
of less than half that among moderate drinkers. 

A number of foreign insurance companies have kept 
records of the abstainers and drinkers among their 
policyholders separately and these also always show a 
higher death-rate among the drinkers. The following 
examples taken from recent reports of insurance com- 
panies will illustrate this point. 

In the ten-year period from September 30, 1900, to 
September 30, 1910, the experience of the Australasian 
Temperance and General Life Insurance Society showed 
that where there were 100 deaths among drinkers there 
were only 62 deaths among abstainers. The Manu- 
facturers' Life Insurance Company during the nine-year 
period from 1902 to 19 10 inclusive had a death rate of 
56 among abstainers as against 100 deaths among an 
equal number of drinkers. For a twenty-eight-year 
period, ending in 191 1, the Sceptre Life Insurance 
Association had 67 deaths among its non-drinking policy- 
holders, where it had 100 deaths among its non-abstain- 
ing members. All other records that have been kept 
show that there are more deaths among drinkers than 
among an equal number of abstainers of the same age.^ 

^ There may be some actuary in the world who believes that total 
abstainers do not live as long as non-abstainers, but I never heard of one, 



354 KEEPING THE LAWS 

We can therefore decide that alcohol used as men ordi- 
narily use it when they drink it for a beverage shortens 
life. 

The effects of the use of alcohol as a beverage on the 
structure of the cells. The habitual use of alcoholic 
drinks causes /"^//y degeneration ?LXid. fibroid degeneration 
of certain of the tissues. In fatty degeneration little 
droplets of oil begin to collect within the cell, and 
gradually the living protoplasm of the cell is replaced by 
fat. When the cells of the gastric glands are changed 
in this way, they lose their power to secrete ; when the 
muscle cells of the heart are loaded with fat, they lose 
their strength ; when the walls of the arteries are 
affected, they are, of course, weakened ; and when 
there is fatty degeneration of the liver, kidneys, or 
nerve fibers, we must expect these organs to fail in 
their work. 

The tissues most commonly affected by fibroid degen- 
eration are those of the liver, kidneys, arteries, heart, 
and brain. In this kind of degeneration there is an 
overgrowth of the connective tissue elements, while the 
working cells degenerate and die. Often in the arteries 
the elastic muscle coat is not only changed to connective 
tissue, but lime is deposited in the walls. These changes 
make "pipe-stem" arteries, which are brittle and often 
have the opening in them narrowed until it is with great 
difficulty that the blood makes its way through them. As 

« 

and I have never seen any figures shovi^ing an advantage in favor of 
abstainers of less than 21 per cent. Certainly, adding one fifth to a man's 
life makes it worth while to forego one class of food or drink. — Edward 
A. Woods, an insurance manager, quoted in Dr. Henry Smith Williams* 
Alcohol : How It Affects the Ltdividualj the Comttiunity, and the Race. 



ALCOHOL 355 

we shall later explain, alcohol probably causes these 
changes in the tissues in an indirect rather than in a 
direct way. 

Some diseases that may be caused by the use of alcohol. 

In the United States each year there are about 4000 
deaths that are directly due to the use of alcohol. Cer- 
tain diseases, moreover, are more common among drink- 
ers than among abstainers, and it is certain that much 
sickness and many deaths are due to accidents and dis- 
eases that are brought on by the use of alcoholic 
drinks. 

Prominent among the causes of death that are con- 
nected with the use of alcohol are : hardening of the liver, 
in which the liver turns to connective tissue and shrinks 
into a small, hard organ utterly incapable of doing the 
work which it is supposed to do ; diseases of the kidneys, 
in which these organs degenerate and fail in their work 
of excreting the poisonous wastes ; heart disease, which 
may take many forms ; hardening of the arteries ; apo- 
plexy and paralysis, which are due to the bursting of 
blood vessels in the brain ; insanity and other diseases 
of the nervous system ; tuberculosis, pneumonia, and 
other germ diseases, to which the user of alcohol falls a 
victim because he has weakened the defenses of his body ; 
and accidents that would never have occurred had not 
some one been under the influence of drink. 

Alcohol usually an indirect cause of disease. Alcohol 
itself is a direct cause of certain diseases of the brain, 
but it is an indirect rather than a direct cause of most 
of the diseases mentioned above. It has been thought 
that perhaps one way alcoholic beverages cause these 
diseases is by damaging the digestive organs and cans- 



356 KEEPING THE LAWS 

ing poisons to be formed in the intestinal wastes (page 
314). A much more probable explanation is that these 
degenerative diseases are due to chronic infections with 
germs (page 379), and that alcohol plays its part in 
causing them by breaking down the resistance of the 
body to germs. However, it is not a matter of im- 
portance how alcohol brings its evil effects to pass. A 
man may be guilty of a crime, even though he employs 
others to commit the unlawful deed, and whether alcohol 
itself destroys the cells or whether it causes germs to do 
so, we must hold alcoholic drinks responsible for the 
damage that is done. 

The effects of a continued moderate use of alcohol. It 
should be understood that, except for certain effects on 
the brain, we are discussing in this chapter the effects 
of what is called moderate drinking on the body ; for 
when alcohol is used day after day, even though it be 
used very moderately, there is a piling up of its effects 
on the tissues. Indeed, the cells of the man who drinks 
a moderate amount of beer or wine daily are never free 
from the influence of . alcohol. Beer drinkers suffer 
most of all from fatty degeneration of the tissues, and 
one need never become intoxicated to experience the 
evil effects from alcohol that have been described above.^ 
The shortening of life given on page 352 is in moderate 
drinkers and not in drunkards ; for the death rate 

1 Alcoholic diseases are certainly not limited to persons recognized 
as drunkards. Instances have been recorded in increasing numbers in 
recent years of the occurrences of diseases of the circulatory, renal, and 
nervous systems, reasonably or positively attributable to the use of alco- 
holic liquors in persons v^ho never became really intoxicated and were 
regarded by themselves and others as " moderate drinkers." 

— Dr. William Welch. 



ALCOHOL 357 

among those who habitually drink to intoxication is so 
high that no insurance company will accept them.^ 

The effects of alcohol on the mind. Because alcohol 
causes a person to seem lively and to talk more easily, 
it is commonly believed that it is a stimulant. This is 
a mistake. Alcohol is a narcotic, and it produces its 
seemingly stimulating effect by paralyzing the higher 
centers of the brain and allowing the person to do and 
say things that ordinarily his good sense keeps him 
from doing and saying. In one set of experiments it 
was found that 20 to 40 grams of alcohol (the amount in 
from one to two quarts of beer) taken on twelve suc- 
cessive days lessened the capacity to add numbers 40 
per cent and the ability to memorize poetry 70 per cent. 

Other experiments show that the capacity to think 
clearly and to judge correctly is greatly influenced by 
even small quantities of alcohol. Typesetters who were 
given only a little over an ounce of alcohol a day did 
10 per cent less work and made 25 per cent more mis- 
takes than on days when no alcohol was taken, and the 
effect of these small doses of alcohol continued 48 hours. 

After taking a drink, a man feels that his mind is 
working better and that his ideas come more easily and 
freely. The truth is that his mind is slower and his 
ideas are less sensible than usual, but the powers of his 
mind by which he judges of these things have been 
deadened by the alcohol, and he is no longer capable 
of forming a correct opinion of his own acts. Much of 

1 A few of those classed as drinkers may have become heavy drinkers 
after they were insured, but insurance companies reject not only drunkards, 
but also those who seem likely to become drunkards. The comparison is, 
therefore, in the main between abstainers and moderate drinkers. 



358 KEEPING THE LAWS 

the scientific knowledge that we have of the effects of 
alcohol on the mind has been gathered in Germany, and 
so great an impression have these and other newly dis- 
covered facts concerning the use of alcohol made on the 
people, that there has been a decided falling off in the 
amount of beer that is used in that country. The fol- 
lowing words from an address by Emperor WilHam II 
to the German naval cadets are suggestive of the new 
general attitude of mind on this question : 

*' As you will observe for yourselves, in the course of 
your service on shipboard, naval service demands a 
height of effort which it is hardly possible to surpass. 
It is necessary that you be able to endure this continual 
heavy strain without exhaustion in order to be fresh for 
emergencies. 

" The next war and the next naval battle will demand 
of you sound nerves. Nerve power will decide the vic- 
tory. The nerves are undermined and endangered from 
youth up by the use of alcohol. ... Victory will lie 
with the nation that uses the smallest amount of alcohol." 

In connection with the above it is interesting to note 
that after the outbreak of the great European war, all 
the principal nations engaged took steps to limit the 
use of alcoholic drinks. 

The effect of alcohol on the strength and control of the 
muscles. The man who has taken alcohol always feels 
that he is stronger and has more endurance because of 
it. In this case, again, the alcohol user is mistaken as 
to his real condition, as facts like the following prove : 

On the 28th of June, 1908, a 62-mile walking race 
was held at Kiel to decide the German championship 
in long-distance walking. Eighty-three contestants en- 



ALCOHOL 



359 





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Fig. 132. The records of sixty ball players in the major leagues. Of thirty 
abstaining players in the major leagues in 1904, eight were still members of big 
league teams in 1914. Of thirty drinkers, two remained in the major leagues 
until 1914 and one of these had become an abstainer. Note that from the be- 
ginning the drinkers dropped out more rapidly. {From data compiled by Hugh 
Fulierton.) 

tered the match. The first four to finish were abstainers. 
Of the first ten to finish, six were abstainers and two 
others had used no alcohol for months before the con- 
test. Of the twenty-four abstainers who entered the 
contest, only two failed to reach the goal. Of the fifty- 
nine non-abstainers, thirty, or more than one half, failed 
to reach it. All the non-abstainers asserted that while 
they used alcohol it was in strictest moderation. 

Two companies of a Bavarian regiment on the march 
were allowed to drink in the intervals of rest. At the 
end of the practice march, twenty men in one of the 
drinking companies and twenty-two men in the other 
drinking company were unable to march, while in an 
abstaining company only one man was unfit for duty. 

About nine years ago. Professor Durig, a chemist 



36o KEEPING THE LAWS 

and an expert mountain climber, carried on a series of 
experiments by repeatedly climbing a peak in the Alps. 
On certain days he drank alcohol equal to the amount 
in two glasses of beer; on other days no alcohol was 
taken. He was accustomed to use moderate amounts 
of alcohol, and he felt that he worked more easily on 
alcohol days, but to his surprise he found that on those 
days he expended 15 per cent more energy and required 
more than one fifth longer to climb the mountain. 
Other tests carried on for ten days in the laboratory 
showed that two glasses of beer taken at dinner re- 
duced the working power of the muscles 10 per cent. 
"Alcohol gives, not strength, but only a feeling of 
strength, to the muscles." It deadens the ability to 
feel fatigue, but does not relieve fatigue. 

It is probable that the weakening effect of alcohol on 
the muscles is mainly due to its interference with their 
control by the nervous system. The movements are 
made awkwardly, and the muscles work against each 
other, and so much of their power is lost. This lack of 
fineness of control in alcohol users is shown at once in a 
baseball pitcher, a bowler, a rifleman, or any one who 
does work that requires each muscle to work exactly 
the right amount and at exactly the right moment. 

The drinking habit a handicap. Since the idea of 
efficiency has penetrated the business world, and since 
*' Safety First '* has been adopted as a motto in the in- 
dustrial world, it is becoming increasingly difficult for a 
young man who drinks to obtain desirable positions or 
to secure promotion. Some persons claim that the oc- 
casional drinker is being done an injustice in this matter, 
— that he is being classed with the habitual drinker and 



ALCOHOL 361 

is not receiving credit for being as responsible and ef- 
ficient as he really is. As to the correctness of this 
view we are not in a position to judge, but certainly 
under present conditions a young man would do well to 
remember the question that Connie Mack put to a young 
ball player when he asked him whether he thought it 
was worth while, for an occasional drink that would not 
be missed, to put himself into the drinking group. 

Why the effects of alcohol on the body are not more 
generally understood. The first reason why the real 
effects of alcohol on the body are not understood by 
many people is because it makes one feel refreshed 
when one is still weary ; it makes the stomach feel warm 
and comfortable, while it causes digestive troubles stead- 
ily to grow worse ; it kills the symptoms of ailments in 
the body and leaves the person to think that all is well 
with him, even when serious difficulties are coming on. 

The other reason why the effects of alcohol are 
understood by only a few people is that most of our 
knowledge on the subject is new. Within the lifetime 
of persons who are yet of middle age, we have come 
through a revolution in our hygienic ideas that has left 
the people, and even some physicians, far behind. We 
therefore find whole towns drinking polluted water, and 
many of the people contracting typhoid fever frt)m it ; 
we find at least 75,000 of our countrymen contracting 
tuberculosis each year by living and working with con- 
sumptives ; we find teachers who know nothing of ade- 
noids and infected tonsils, although there are 5,000,000 
school children in the United States suffering from them ; 
and we find intelligent people still taking alcohol to im- 
prove the digestion, build them up when they have 



362 KEEPING THE LAWS 

become run down, and strengthen them against germ 
diseases. We are largely governed in our lives by the 
ideas of the past, and it will require time for the new 
facts that have been collected concerning the effects of 
alcohol to drive out the old-fashioned ideas that still 
prevail among us. 

QUESTIONS 

How is alcohol produced ? How is alcohol made in the 
tropics ? How is wine made ? How is beer made ? Name 
some distilled liquors. 

What effect has the use of alcohol on the health ? Give 
statistics showing its effect on the death rate. 

Explain what is meant by fatty degeneration. What organs 
may be affected in this way ? What changes take place in 
fibroid degeneration? What organs are commonly affected 
in this way ? Explain the result of fibroid degeneration of 
the arteries. 

In the United States how many deaths each year are 
directly due to alcohol ? Name some diseases that are often 
indirectly caused by the use of alcohol. What effects has 
moderate drinking on the body ? 

Why is it commonly believed that alcohol stimulates the 
mind ? What effect have small amounts of alcohol on the 
power to add numbers ? to memorize ? Describe the experi- 
ment in which typesetters were given small amounts of alco- 
hol. Give an account of the speech of Emperor William II 
before the German naval cadets. 

Explain the effects of alcohol on the muscles. Why is the 
reputation of being a drinker a handicap to a young man ? 
Why are the real effects of alcohol not understood by many 
persons ? 



CHAPTER TWENTY-TWO 



ACCIDENTS 




" In time of peace prepare for war." In every house 
there should be kept in a small box or drawer certain 
articles for use in case of accident. Among these arti- 
cles should be soft, worn-out towels ; cotton or linen cloths 

three to six inches square ; 
rolls of bandages varying from 
one half inch to three inches 
in width and from one to two 
yards in length ; a bar of green 
soap ; threaded needles, scis- 
sors, and safety pins ; borated 
vaselin ; bichlorid or biniodid 
of mercury disks; powdered 
boric acid ; and a bottle of 
collodion. Accidents come 
FIGS. 133 and 134. Sho^ving a without warning, and having 

circular bandage and the method of thcse SUpplicS ready may Save 
reversing a bandage. suffering Or CVCn life. 

Bandages. Since many small hurts are treated with- 
out the aid of a physician, it is well to understand how 
to put on a bandage neatly, comfortably, and securely. 
When the part that is to be bandaged is of nearly the 
same circumference throughout, the bandage should 
simply be rolled around the part from below upward, 
each turn of the cloth covering two thirds of the one 
below. When the part that is to be bandaged is thicker 
in one part than in another, as the forearm or leg, the 
bandage may be made to lie smooth and flat by revers- 
ing each turn after the first few turns. To reverse a 
bandage, hold it at its lower edge and turn it one half 

363 



364 



KEEPING THE LAWS 




over towards you. To give a neat appearance, make 
each reverse directly above the one preceding it. The 
figure-of-eight bandage is useful 
about joints. The best way to 
get an understanding of the dif- 
ferent bandages here described is 
to study the illustrations in Fig- 
ures 133 to 138. After two turns 
have been put on, the bandage 
should be firaily stitched, and, 
after the bandage is completed, 
the end should be securely sewed. 
A row of stitches from top to 
bottom, one in each turn of the 
bandage, is of great advantage 
in preventing slipping. Always 
bandage firmly, but never too 
tightly, and use an equal pressure 
throughout the bandage. 

Wounds. It is well that a cut 
should bleed freely, as the blood 
assists in washing out and killing 
any germs that may be in the 
wound. If the cut has been made 
with a clean instrument, it may be 
bandaged without any treatment 
at all, or bandaged after be- 
ing dusted with powdered boric 
acid. A wound made by an 
unclean instrument should be 
washed with soap and water and treated with powdered 
boric acid or berated vaselin. If the person must use 




Figs. 135, 136, 137, and 138. 
A reversed bandage and a 
figure-of-eight bandage on the 
hand ; a figure-of-eight band- 
age and a reversed bandage 
on the foot. 



ACCIDENTS 



365 



the injured part in attending to his work, two bandages 
should be put on. The outer one may be changed when 
it is soiled, but unless the wound becomes red and pain- 
ful and has matter in it, the inner bandage should be left 
undisturbed until the injury has healed. 

Deep wounds, such as are made by rusty nails that 
have become soiled by lying about barnyards, are dan- 
gerous, because frequently tetanus germs get into them. 
A puncture or other wound that is so deep that it can- 
not be thoroughly cleansed ought to be treated by a 
physician, who will know whether it is advisable to use 
tetanus antitoxin as a safeguard against danger from 
tetanus germs. 

Bleeding. When blood flows in jets and has a bright 
red color, an artery has been cut. If the blood flows in 

a steady stream, it is a vein that 
has been severed. In either 
case, a physician should be 
called at once. In the mean- 
time, control the bleeding by 
pressing on the vessel with the 
thumbs. The pressure should 
be applied between the wound 
and the heart if the cut vessel 
is an artery ; beyond the wound, 
if the bleeding is from a vein. 
If the physician is long in 
coming, or if the bleeding can- 
not be controlled by pressure with the thumbs, twist 
a handkerchief about the limb, as shown in Figure 139. 
The blood should not be shut off from the Hmb for 
longer than an hour, as much damage may be done by 




Fig. 139. Checking bleeding 
from a wound. 



366 KEEPING THE LAWS 

depriving the cells of their supply of blood for too long 
a time. 

Blows on the head. A blow on the head sometimes 
ruptures a blood vessel within the cranium and causes 
a blood clot to form on the brain. If a person becomes 
sleepy after such a blow, a physician should be called at 
once. It is well to wake the person occasionally during 
the night after such an injury; for otherwise he may 
sink into unconsciousness without its being discovered. 

Burning clothing. If your clothing should take fire, 
do not start to run. If possible, remove the burning 
garment at once. If this cannot be done, remember that 
a fire cannot burn v/ithout air, and that the quickest way 
to put out burning clothing is to lie down and wrap your- 
self in a blanket or rug, or in anything else that you can 
lay hands on. If nothing is at hand that can be used as 
a covering to smother the fire, lie down and roll over and 
over. In any case, lie down so that the flames will not 
I come up about your face; for inhaling a flame is often 

followed by very serious consequences. In passing close 
to a fire, as in a burning building, the face should be pro- 
tected if possible by something held before it. 

The treatment of burns. A burn in which the skin is 
only reddened, or in which the bUstering is sHght, may 
be treated by simply shutting the air away from it. 
A paste made of baking soda and water, or of flour or 
starch mixed with water, is good for this purpose.. 
White of egg, vaselin, olive oil, castor qIJ, .ft-esh lard, or 
cream may also be used to cover a burn. Wet cloths 
wrung out of cold water will help to allay the pain. 
Burns which cover much surface, or small, deep burns, 
should be shown to a physician; for it is not always 



ACCIDENTS 



367 



possible to tell at first how much damage has been done, 
and the injury may be more severe than it appears 
to be. 

A burn made by an acid should be washed and 
treated with limewater, baking soda, or soapsuds. A 
burn made by an alkali (such as lime, lye, etc.) may be 
treated, after thoroughly washing off the alkali, with 
weak vinegar, lemon juice, sour milk, or buttermilk. 

Apparent drowning. Drain the water from the pa- 
tient's lungs by catching him under the waist and hold- 
ing him for a few 
seconds with the head 
hanging down. Then 
quickly lay him in 
the position shown 
in Figure 140, with a 
folded coat or blanket 
under his chest. 
Place the hands on 

FIG. 140. Carrying on artificial respiration, either side of the back 

over the lower ribs. Throw the weight of the body steadily 
downward on the hands and drive the air out of the lungs. 
Take the pressure off the body without lifting the hands, 
and allow the air to come into the lungs. Repeat about 
fifteen times a minute. This method sends more air 
through the lungs than any of the methods in which 
the patient is laid on his back, and it has the additional 
advantage that the tongue does not fall back and block 
the throat. 

Rubbing the limbs along the veins toward the heart 
causes the blood to circulate and should be kept up if 
there is a second person to attend to it. Keep the 




368 KEEPING THE LAWS 

patient as warm as possible by covering him with a 
blanket and pouring warm water over him, or by laying 
hot-water bottles about him. A hot-water bottle at the 
head is especially important, but nothing hotter than 
can be borne comfortably by the skin of the elbow 
should be brought into contact with an unconscious per- 
son. When the patient begins to revive, give strong hot 
coffee, or fifteen drops of ammonia in a glass of water. 
Artificial respiration should be kept up for an hour or 
longer if the person does not recover sooner. 

Suffocation. Suffocation may be produced by hanging, 
by choking, or by gas or smoke poisoning. Sprinkle 
cold water on the face; carry on artificial respiration 
as in cases of apparent drowning ; and, when the person 
is able to swallow, give stimulants as directed above. 

Fainting. Lay the patient flat on his back, so that 
the blood will flow easily to the head. Sprinkle cold 
water on the face, and give him fresh air. Give strong 
coffee or ammonia as directed above. 

Dangers from electricity. As the use of electricity 
becomes more common, it is more and more frequently 
a source of accidents. Even now many people do not 
seem to know that highly charged electric wires and 
third rails are deadly affairs, and that those who do not 
understand their workings ought not to take chances 
with them. Where a notice is posted warning the 
public not to cross the track of an electric line, there is 
a reason for the warning, and you should keep off the 
track. When a trolley wire or an electric wire breaks 
and falls to the ground, keep away from it. It is in- 
teresting to experiment with electricity, but you cannot 
afford to begin in this way. 



ACCIDENTS 369 

Rescuing a person from an electric wire or a third rail. 

A live wire lying on a person may be safely flipped off 
with a dry board or stick. If the person is lying on 
the wire, the wire may safely be cut with an ax or 
hatchet that has a dry wooden handle. Cut between 
the person and the source of the electricity ; on both 
sides, if the source of the electricity is unknown. 

In trying to pull a person off a live wire or third rail, 
great care is necessary or the rescuer will be injured. 
In attempting to do this, unless the ground is very dry, 
one should stand on a dry board, a folded coat, or 
several thicknesses of folded newspapers. A rubber 
mat is better than the articles just mentioned, but it is 
not often at hand. If possible, take hold of the per- 
son through dry cloth or paper, and catch him by the 
clothing without allowing the hand to come into contact 
with his body. Pull him off the rail or wire with one 
quick, firm motion, and if he is not breathing, carry on 
artificial respiration as in cases of apparent drowning. 
A doctor should be sent for as quickly as possible. 

Foreign bodies in the eye. If a cinder or other foreign 
body gets into the eye, do not rub the eye. Keep it 
closed and the tears will often wash the dirt out into 
view so that it may easily be removed. Sometimes 
stretching the upper lid down over the lower lid two or 
three times, or closing the nostril on the opposite side 
and blowing the nose hard, will change the position of 
the object and make it possible to remove it. The inner 
surface of the lower lid may be examined by pressing 
the lid down, and some persons are skillful enough to 
turn the upper lid back over a match or small stick so 
that the offending particle can be wiped off. Only 



370 KEEPING THE LAWS 

clean fingers, clean handkerchiefs, or other clean objects 
should be allowed to touch the eye. After the foreign 
body has been removed, a few drops of boric acid 
solution is soothing and is useful in safeguarding against 
possible infection with germs. 

Foreign bodies in the nose and throat. Little children 
sometimes push beans, peas, beads, or other objects into 
their noses. Having the child blow the nose will often 
bring these objects out, but if they cannot be removed 
in this way a physician should be called. Do not try 
to remove them with a hairpin or other sharp instru- 
ment. 

When a button, coin, or other object sticks in the 
throat, the child should be seized by the feet, suspended 
head downward, and energetically shaken and slapped 
on the back. Usually this will cause the object in the 
throat to drop out. 

Treatment for swallowed pins and needles. When a 
pin or needle has been swallowed, a large meal of bread, 
potatoes, cabbage, or other coarse foods should be eaten, 
as they will leave a large amount of undigested matter 
to coat the foreign object during its passage through 
the alimentary canal. Never give a laxative under such 
conditions. No anxiety need be felt over swallowed but- 
tons, coins, and other similar objects. 

Frostbite. Keep away from the fire and thaw the 
** bitten '' part out very gradually by rubbing it with 
snow, or by keeping it bathed in ice water until the 
blood begins to circulate through it again. Suddenly 
thawing the frozen tissues is far more injurious than the 
freezing, and every care should be taken to keep in a 
cool atmosphere until the thawing process is completed. 



ACCIDENTS 371 

Ivy poisoning. Dissolve a level teaspoonful of potas- 
sium permanganate crystals in a pint of water and 
bathe the affected parts. Before the skin is broken 




Figs. 141 and 142. The poison ivy is often mistaken for the Virginia creeper. 
The Virginia creeper has five leaves, while the poison ivy has only three. 

the poisonous oil may be partially removed at least by 
thorough washing with strong soap or with alcohol. In 
severe cases a physician should be consulted. 

Poisoning. Bottles that contain poisons should not be 
kept among medicines, and it is well to paste strips of 
sandpaper on such bottles, so that they can be recog- 
nized even in the dark. When a poison is taken by 
accident, a physician should be called immediately. If 
possible, have the messenger tell him what poison has 
been taken, so that the proper antidote may be brought. 

A card with a list of the different poisons and their 
antidotes should be written out, and placed with the 
other articles that are kept for use in case of accident. 
The sooner the antidote is given, the less time will the 
poison have to damage the body, and when one is thus 
prepared, a case of poisoning can often be treated be- 
fore the doctor arrives. 



372 KEEPING THE LAWS 

While waiting for the doctor, give an emetic at once 
to produce profuse vomiting, if the poison is not an 
acid. Good emetics are : mustard and water ; salt and 
water ; lukewarm water alone and in large quantities ; 
and ipecac. Tickling the throat with a feather or thrust- 
ing the finger into the throat will help to cause vomiting. 

The following list of antidotes for some of the more 
common poisons may be found useful : 

Acids. Give soda, chalk, old mortar, or soap. Oil 
and milk are useful. For carbolic acid use alcohol 
(whisky or brandy will do). Oil or milk should be used 
if no alcohol is at hand. 

Arsenic. This is the poison in Fowler's Solution, 
Paris Green, and Rough on Rats. Give any medicine 
that contains iron. 

Mercuric chlorid. This is also called bichlorid of 
mercury and corrosive sublimate. Give milk, white of 
egg, or both. Flour or starch with milk and egg is good. 

Phosphorus. Magnesia and chalk in water, and white 
of egg are good remedies. Do not give oil or milk. 
Phosphorus is the poisonous substance on the end of 
matches, and is often found in rat poison. 

Opium, laudanum, nightshade, and jim^son weed. Give 
strong coffee or ammonia. Keep the patient awake by 
walking him about, slapping him, or throwing cold 
water over him, if necessary. Give stimulants as di- 
rected under Fainting, on page 368. 

Strychnin. Inhaling chloroform or ether will quiet 
the patient. Give five grains of sodium bromid every 
half hour. Keep the patient away from cold drafts and 
noises, and allow nothing to touch him, as any stimulus 
makes the spasms more violent. 



ACC/nENTS 373 

The importance of the problem of accidents. Figure 
143 shows the great number of deaths in the United 
States that were due to accidents in one year. This num- 
ber takes no account of the thousands of persons in the 
country who were injured but not killed. The question of 
accidents, therefore, is a very important one indeed, and 
especially is this true because the victims are often 
crippled so that for the remainder of their lives they 
suffer pain and are hindered in their work. Because 
nearly all accidents can be prevented by reasonable 
care, we shall discuss briefly how this may be done. 

Preventing accidents. The first step in preventing 
accidents is so to arrange the conditions under which 
we live and work that it will be difficult for mishaps to 
occur. In machine shops and factories and on railroads, 
this is rapidly being done. The causes of accidents in 
private homes and on farms should also be removed ; 
for many houses are built with dangerously steep cellar 
stairs; many barn lofts can be entered only by cUmbing 
rickety ladders ; stairways and openings in floors that 
are left unprotected by railings are the cause of many 
falls ; and farm machinery is constantly being operated 
in a dangerous and careless way. All these and other 
conditions that cause accidents should be remedied, and 
when this is done the number of accidents is at once 
greatly reduced. 

The other important factor in the prevention of acci- 
dents is the use of intelligence and reasonable care when 
it is possible for carelessness to cause an accident to hap- 
pen. In our cities children are continually running 
directly in the way of automobiles and street cars ; 
drownings occur because of a lack of care in handhng 



374 KEEPING THE LAWS 

boats and because persons who cannot swim venture 
into water beyond their depth; clothing is set ablaze by 
standing too near an open fire ; and automobile accidents 
occur because of recklessness in driving these machines. 
Accidents of this kind can only be prevented by in- 
telligence and watchfulness, and you should constantly 
educate yourself in those habits that prevent them. 

QUESTIONS 

Name some articles that should be kept for use in case of 
accident. Name three kinds of bandages and tell how each 
is put on. Describe the treatment for cuts. Why is a deep 
wound made by an unclean instrument dangerous ? When 
blood is flowing from a wound, how can you tell whether it 
comes from a vein or an artery ? How can the bleeding be 
checked until a physician arrives ? 

Why should a person not be allowed to sleep uninter- 
ruptedly after a blow on the head ? If your clothing were to 
catch fire, what should you do ? Describe the treatment of 
burns. Describe artificial respiration. When should it be 
used ? In addition to carrying on artificial respiration, what 
else may be done in cases of apparent drowning? What 
should be done in cases of suffocation ? What should be 
done for a person who has fainted ? 

Tell how a person may be rescued from a live wire or a 
third rail. How may foreign bodies be removed from the 
eye ? from the nose ? from the throat ? What is the treat- 
ment for swallowed pins and needles ? for frostbite ? for ivy 
poisoning ? Give antidotes for the following poisons : carbolic 
acid ; arsenic ; mercuric chlorid ; phosphorus. Give the 
treatment for a case of strychnin poisoning. What are some 
of the more common forms of accidents ? What are the two 
important factors in the prevention of accidents ? 



CHAPTER TWENTY-THREE 

REALIZING HEALTH POSSIBILITIES 

When a farmer begins to study how to increase his 
harvests, one of the first facts he learns is that it is the 
*' limiting factor '* that determines what the growth of 
his crops shall be. An exact definition of what a Hmit- 
ing factor is would mean little either to the average 
farmer or to you, but an illustration makes it easy to 
understand the meaning of the phrase. 

Suppose that in an acre of land there is enough nitro- 
gen to raise 75 bushels of corn, enough phosphorus to 
raise 20 bushels, enough potassium and other needed 
elements to raise 100 bushels, and that the season is 
favorable and there are rain and sunshine enough to 
make 100 bushels. What will the crop be.*^ It will be 
20 bushels. 

The phosphorus is the limiting factor that makes it 
impossible for the yield to rise above that point. A 
chain is no stronger than its weakest link, and it is not 
the half dozen favorable factors, but the one unfavor- 
able one, that determines what the harvest shall be. 
The important thing for the farmer to do, therefore, is 
to find the factor that is limiting his crop and strengthen 
the weak point. Otherwise the abundant supply of 
water and of nitrogen and other plant foods in the soil 
is of no value to him. 

The limiting factor in health. The health of the hu- 
man body is dependent on many different things. All 
of these are necessary, and if any one of them is lacking, 
it will be the limiting factor that will make health im- 
possible no matter how many other conditions may be 
favorable. One person may have good food, fresh air, 

375 



376 KEEPING THE LAWS 

and everything else necessary to health except sufficient 
sleep. In other cases the limiting factor may be the 
condition of the teeth, adenoid growths, lack of exercise, 
lack of fresh air, alcohol, overwork, or improper food. 
With many persons everything necessary for health is 
present if only disease germs could be kept out of the 
body. 

In some cases more than one difficulty must, of course, 
be overcome before health can be achieved, but often 
only one factor makes the difference between illness 
and health. In our quest for health, it is, therefore, 
most important that we neglect none of the factors 
that are necessary for a realization of our health pos- 
sibilities. To give you some wider ideas that may 
serve as guiding principles in your search for limiting 
hygienic factors in your own life, we shall in this final 
chapter discuss in a more general way the causes of 
sickness and how they may be avoided. 

Health natural to the human body. Plants suffer 
from many diseases, but practically all these diseases 
are caused by germs or fungi. When a plant has the 
food, water, light, and air that it needs, and when the 
temperature of the soil and air is right, it will be 
healthy unless outside enemies attack it. 

Is the human body built less perfectly than a plant .»* 
Does trouble arise within it because of its own weak- 
nesses and defects } The more we know of the body 
and its workings, the more we are led to believe that it 
is splendidly built and that, like a plant, it is capable of 
living at all times in health. In order to understand 
this point of view more clearly, let us discuss briefly 
the causes of illness. 



OTHER. DISEASES OF THE 
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 

(5912) rGi.6 

ACUTE N™RJTI5^^^^ 
''DISEA5E 




Fig. 143. Deaths from certain causes in 1914 in the part of the United States 
where vital statistics are kept. Many of these deaths, as well as the deaths from 
our common communicable diseases, are caused by infections with germs. 



377 



378 KEEPING THE LAWS 

Three classes of diseases. For purposes of conven- 
ience we may divide diseases into the following three 
classes : 

Germ diseases. Most of the illnesses of early and 
middle life are caused by germs growing in the body 
and poisoning the cells. It certainly is no fault of a 
delicate machine, if something gets into it from 
the outside and upsets its workings, so we cannot 
blame the body when it falls ill because of attacks 
by germs. 

Physiological diseases. The causes of a considerable 
number of these diseases are not well understood. 
Some of them, like cancer, may yet prove to be germ 
diseases.^ Others, Uke scurvy and pellagra, are caused 
by the failure of the food to supply the body with 
materials that it needs. In the case of others, there 
are probably wrong chemical changes within the cells ; 
and in a number of other diseases, some organ from an 
unknown cause fails to do its work. 

It may be that in some of these diseases the difficulty 
does lie in the body, — that there are some imperfect 
human machines. As a matter of fact, however, few 
persons suffer from diseases of this kind compared with 

1 In cancer a part of the cells multiply and feed on the other cells, 
but the reason for this has not been found. It is possible, however, to cure 
the disease in most cases if it is taken in time ; for when there is only a 
small group of cancer cells their growth can often be stopped by radium or 
the use of the X-ray, or a surgeon can take them out completely and then 
the disease is gone. Any one who has any growth or chronic sore on his 
body should have it examined at once by a physician ; for in its early 
stages cancer is often easily dealt with, and most of the trouble comes from 
cases that have been neglected until the growth has made its way so far 
among the tissues that it cannot all be removed. The importance of 
cancer can be seen by a glance at Figure 143. 



REALIZING HEALTH POSSIBILITIES 379 

the number who are ill from other causes, and we are 
finding that in more and more of our troubles it is not 
the body that is at fault. 

Degenerative diseases. In the diseases represented 
by the great upper branches of the tree on page 377, 
there are degenerative changes in the tissues, — the 
cells die and are replaced by fat or dead materials 
like those found in tendons and bones. These degen- 
erative changes take place most frequently of all in the 
walls of the arteries and in the tissues of the kidneys 
and heart. Because of the great importance of degen- 
erative diseases ; because it is probably unnatural for 
them to come on before old age ; and because there is 
reason to believe that in a great measure they can be 
prevented, we shall discuss the causes of these diseases 
and the most practical methods of preventing them. 

The causes of degenerative changes in the tissues. 
The degenerative changes in the tissues are to be looked 
on as the wear and tear that takes place in the machine. 
They are the same changes as those found in old age 
— in fact, they are old age. It is probable that any- 
thing that injures the health of the body in any way 
hastens these changes and hurries us into old age faster 
than we otherwise should go. It is agreed, however, 
by most medical men that these tissue changes are in 
many cases due to the following causes : 

Overwork^ haste ^ and worry. Persons who do very 
heavy labor are especially subject to certain degenera- 
tive diseases, and there is much reason to think that a 
hurried, nervous life hastens the breaking down of the 
body machine. Part of the evil wrought by this kind of 
life. may be due to the fact that it lowers the resistance 



38o KEEPING THE LAWS 

of the body to chronic germ infections, but there is also 
much reason to beheve that the speeding up of the 
human machine to the extent that is now often practiced 
is in itself exceedingly harmful. The importance of a 
quiet, reasonable life should be understood by all ; for 
he who drives his body beyond its powers of endurance 
must pay the penalty. 

The use of alcohol. The question of the use of al- 
coholic drinks is a great problem in hygiene, for the 
cells and tissues of persons who habitually use these 
drinks break down sooner than do the cells and tissues 
of those who do not use them. This question we 
cannot discuss here, but the figures that have been 
collected by insurance companies conclusively prove that 
the use of alcohol shortens life. Usually the effects 
of the alcohol show themselves but little until middle 
life, and then often the drinker suddenly finds that the 
organs which must keep up the circulation of his blood 
and excrete the wastes from his body have already 
reached old age. Fortunately each one has it in his 
own power to save his body from injury from this cause. 

Intestinal poisons. Phosphorus, chloroform, and the 
toxins of disease germs can cause degeneration of the 
cells of the liver and other organs in a few days. Some 
investigators think that when poisons are absorbed in 
large amounts from the intestine month after month 
they also cause these effects. Certainly there is much 
evidence to prove that heavy eaters suffer more from 
degenerative diseases than do those who eat moderately, 
and that most persons who live to a great age are 
temperate in eating. It is possible, therefore, that the 
selection of a diet that will prevent constipation and the 



REALIZING HEALTH rOSSIIULiriES 3 (Si 

poisoning of the body by the intestinal wastes is an 
important means of prolonging life. 

Acute infections diseases. After severe cases of diph- 
theria, scarlet fever, measles, pneumonia, grip, menin- 
gitis, typhoid fever, and other infections, degenerative 
changes have been found in the arteries of even young 
children. Undoubtedly disease germs are like sand in 
the bearings of an engine : they cause the machine to wear 
more in a week or a month than it ought to wear in years. 

Beyond question the deaths that are directly caused 
by the germ diseases of our early years represent only a 
part of the damage done by these diseases ; for an attack 
of diphtheria at ten years of age may weaken the heart 
until it will fail when the person reaches fifty years of 
age, scarlet fever in childhood may start trouble in the 
kidneys that will lead to Bright's disease in later life, 
and it is a common thing for typhoid fever to wreck the 
health for all time. Insurance companies that have 
tried issuing policies on the lives of reformed drunkards 
have found the death rates exceedingly heavy. Even 
when the drinking is stopped, the effects of the alcohol 
that has been consumed in years past cannot be re- 
moved. So even though a person is not killed outright 
by an attack of an acute germ disease, it is nevertheless 
true that his cells are often damaged until they never 
recover. Communicable diseases, therefore, are of far 
more importance than is shown by the mere number 
of deaths that they cause outright, and every one ought 
to be protected from them. 

Chronic germ i^ifections. Persons who are sick for 
long periods of time with tuberculosis and other chronic 
diseases very frequently suffer from hardening of the 



382 KEEPING THE LAWS 

arteries and other degenerative diseases, and it is now 
believed that chronic infection with slow-growing races 
of bacteria is the most important cause of Bright's 
disease, apoplexy, heart disease, and diseases of the 
arteries, — the great upper branches of the tree shown 
on page 377. For this reason all decayed and infected 
teeth should receive attention ; diseased tonsils should 
be removed ; cases of chronic appendicitis or gallstone 
trouble should at once have medical attention ; and any 
other infection with germs should be checked as soon 
as possible. In combating these chronic infections a 
hygienic life is of the greatest importance, and in con- 
nection with this topic we shall say a final word about 
the resistance of the body to germs. 

We cannot depend on our natural resistance to pro- 
tect us from acute germ diseases, — those infections in 
which the germs multiply so rapidly that the body is 
overrun with them before additional defensive sub- 
stances can be produced. But in chronic diseases the 
body has plenty of time to manufacture its protective 
substances, and the better we care for it the more of 
these substances will be produced. The most effective 
method of fighting many chronic diseases, therefore, is 
to increase the germ-killing power of the body by right 
habits of living. Unfortunately we as yet have little 
real knowledge of how the body protects itself against 
germs and of the exact means by which the defenders of 
the body can be stirred into action against its minute foes. 
We do know, in general, however, that when the body 
is suffering from infection, fresh air, good food, sunlight, 
and proper exercise and rest are of great importance in 
raising its defensive powers. In the prevention of 



REALIZING HEALTH POSSIBILITIES 383 

chronic diseases, or rather in the curing of them in their 
early stages, an important factor is the hygienic life. 

Practical methods of replacing illness with health. In 
the United States there are on an average about 3,000,000 
persons sick each day. This means that there were 
3,000,000 years of sickness in the country in a year. Is 
it possible to replace this illness with health ? It is 
indeed possible to do this in a large measure, and it 
can be done in the following ways : 

First of all, the citizens of the United States should em- 
ploy enough health officers to prevent the spread of 
epidemic diseases. This would prevent the deaths that 
are due to these diseases and it would decrease the size of 
some of the great branches on the tree shown on page 

377-^ 

Secondly, every citizen of the country ought to be ex- 
amined thoroughly once a year by a skilled physician. 
All the important ailments shown on Figure 143 give 
early symptoms that a physician can recognize, and we 
ought to have our physicians find these diseases in their 
early stages, when they can be treated with success. 
The farmer does not drive his binder through the grain 
until there is a crash among its parts, but looks it over 
occasionally to see that all the nuts are tight, and in this 
way he prevents damage that would otherwise occur. 
So we should learn to use physicians to keep us well, 
instead of expecting them to cure ailments that have 
advanced until hopeless injury has been done. This is 

1 It should be noted that this diagram shows only the deaths in the 
Registration Area of the United States, — the part of the country where 
vital statistics are kept. This area includes about 66.8 per cent of the 
total population of the United States. 



384 KEEPING THE LAWS 

the Chinese method; for these shrewd Orientals pay 
the physician as long as the family remains well, and 
when any one falls ill they pay no more until the 
patient is restored to health. 

In the third place, if sickness is to give way to health 
in the United States, our people must live hygienic 
lives. We do not live in a world of chance but in a world 
of law, and as we keep or break the laws of our life 
so shall we enjoy health or suffer illness. All of us 
should in some way plan to secure fresh air ; we ought 
to exercise, to eat sensibly and moderately, to live without 
worry and overwork, and to avoid poisoning our cells by 
the use of tobacco or alcoholic drinks. These habits of 
life serve as a wonderful protection against the chronic 
germ infections that cause so much of the illness of later 
life ; they give the cells the conditions that are necessary 
for their health ; and when they are practiced by all the 
people of the country, the small twig in Figure 143 that is 
labeled Old Age will grow into a great branch that will 
become the main trunk of the tree. 

QUESTIONS 

Explain what is meant by the limiting factor in crop raising. 
Discuss the limiting factors in health. Is health or sickness 
natural to the body ? Into what three classes may diseases be 
divided ? What is the trouble in each case ? Name the more 
important causes of degenerative diseases. Explain why 
hygienic living is more important in protecting us against 
chronic germ diseases than it is in protecting us against acute 
germ diseases. How many persons are sick each day in the 
United States ? Name three measures which, if put into effect, 
would do much to bring health to the citizens of the country. 



CHAPTER TWENTY-FOUR 

THE HEALTH OF POSTERITY 

A PRUDENT people considers not only its own welfare 
but the welfare of the generations that are yet to come. 
They plant orchards from which their children will 
gather the fruit. They build houses and bridges of 
stone that will be of service long after the builders are 
gone. They provide expensive schools in which to teach 
their children how to live, and in all ways try to insure 
to their descendants a full and free life. 

Is it possible for a people to do anything to preserve 
the health and vigor of those who will follow them ? 
Can they by wise acts and hygienic living make their 
descendants wiser and stronger than they otherwise 
would be, or can they by foolish living waste the 
heritage of health that their children have a right to 
claim ? These are great questions, and our under- 
standing of them is very incomplete ; yet a study of 
them may be well w^orth the time spent. It will be best 
for us to approach the subject in a broad way, and you 
will need to review what you learned in a former 
chapter (Chapter II) about how the Hfe of a young 
plant or animal begins. 

Heredity a fact. It is a fact that living organisms 
transmit to their descendants the qualities which they 
themselves have. A grain of wheat always produces a 
wheat plant and not a stalk of corn ; from the egg of a 
duck only a duck can be hatched ; dogs descend only 
from dogs ; two blue-eyed parents have only blue-eyed 
children ; and all the young of a fish have fins like the 
parent fish and not feet Hke a frog or wings like a bird. 
With such wonderful constancy, indeed, does the stream 

385 



386 KEEPING THE LAWS 

of life pass down the generations that snails found in 
rocks from 60 to 200 million years old are very similar 
to those now living, and ants that became embedded in 
amber two million years ago seem identical with present 
forms. 

Development determined by materials in egg. Each 
kind of plant or animal has a natural course of develop- 
ment. It grows from a single cell, and the kind of 
plant or animal that is produced depends on the ma- 
terials in the cell from which it starts. For example, 
there is in the egg of a frog something which at a 
certain stage of development causes four legs to appear ; 
in the egg of a bird there are materials which cause 
feathers to grow ; and a young corn plant grows on and 
on until it becomes a cornstalk, because it is natural for 
it to develop in this way. Even though they live side 
by side, the young crab and the young oyster grow into 
animals of very different kinds ; before the life of a plant 
or an animal begins, the material in the egg determines 
the kind of organism that it is to be. 

Injuring the germ cells. The cell from which a plant 
grows is formed by the union of two germ cells, the 
pollen nucleus and the egg (page 163). Suppose that 
before fertilization takes place the egg or the pollen 
nucleus is damaged by poison or in some other way. 
Will the germ cells be weakened so that the young 
plant that grows from the egg will be injured.*^ That 
is, is it possible to injure a living thing before its life 
begins, by injuring the germ cells from which it comes } 
Many experiments on animals show that this can be 
done ; X-rays, radium, and various poisons have been 
used to injure the germ cells of fish, frogs, rabbits, mice, 



THE HEALTH OF POSTERITY 



387 



chickens, and other animals. The results of one of 
these experiments will be discussed. 

In Cornell University Medical College experiments to 
test the effect of alcohol on the offspring of guinea pigs 
have been in progress since 19 10. The alcohol is ad- 
ministered by inhalation ; the animals are placed in a 
tightly closed vessel and made to inhale the fumes of 
alcohol until intoxication takes place. After months or 
even several years of this treatment the guinea pigs are 
fat and seemingly in good health, but the offspring are 
injured, as the following results show : 





< 

S3 
iz; 




S ID 

D 


Number of 
Young Born 
Dead or Dying 
Soon after Birth 




(I, D 


^> 
ll 


l> 

> ti, w 
<3 Ck 


Both parents normal . 


90 


126 


27 


99 


I.I 


Alcoholic father and 












normal mother . . 


90 


102 


55 


47 (two of 
them one- 
eyed) 


•52 


Normal father and al- 












coholic mother . . 


33 


56 


35 


21 


.64 


Both parents alcoholic 


41 


34 


20 


14 


.34 


Both parents third 












generation of alco- 












holic stock 1 . . . 


48 


46 


33 ( I paralyzed, 
2 eyeless, and 
6 with de- 
fective eyes) 


13 


•27 



^ These were animals whose great grandparents had been treated with 
alcohol ; neither they themselves nor their parents or grandparents had 
received any alcohol. 



388 KEEPING THE LAWS 

The above experiments show that when alcohol is 
given to guinea pigs it injures the germ cells, even 
though the animals themselves seem to remain in health, 
and it is further shown that the injury can be handed 
on through three generations after the use of the alcohol 
is stopped. The great grandchildren of the alcoholic 
pigs lacked vigor, and their offspring were weak and 
many of them born dead or deformed. 

Alcohol and human heredity. Does the alcohol which 
human beings use injure their children who are still 
unborn ? On this subject our knowledge is very incom- 
plete. Experiments indicate that the hereditary effect 
of alcohol may be different in different kinds of animals, 
and we do not know how far the results of any of these 
animal experiments apply in the case of man. How- 
ever, it is generally agreed that the children of 
parents who use alcohol to excess are on an average 
inferior to the children of those who do not use it, 
especially in their minds and nervous systems. Some 
have claimed that the alcohol causes this inferiority; 
that the nervousness, insanity, dullness, and lack of 
self-control that are seen in many alcoholic families are 
due to the fact that the germ cells were injured by the 
alcohol which the parents drank. Others believe that 
only persons who are naturally defective use alcohol to 
excess and that it is the natural weakness of these per- 
sons that is transmitted to their children ; that parents 
of this kind will have inferior children whether they use 
alcohol or not, because they themselves are of unsound 
stock. 

The experiments with the guinea pigs have been more 
thoroughly carried out than any other animal experi- 



THE HEALTH OF POSTERITY 389 

merits with alcohol, and they show that in this animal 
the alcohol itself can damage the germ cells. This 
supports other experiments that have been made with 
rabbits and dogs, and it is probable that by the use of 
alcohol the same damage in human inheritance can be 
wrought. In any case, we shall make no mistake if 
we assume that alcohol not only selects weak and de- 
fective persons for its victims, but also makes sound 
stock unsound and thus provides a supply of defective 
material for itself. Concerning how much alcohol must 
be used to cause the damage to appear, or for how long 
a time its use must be continued, our knowledge will 
not permit us to speak with definiteness. 

Other poisonings. It has been claimed that the chil- 
dren of workmen who are exposed to lead-poisoning are 
feeble-minded and otherwise defective, and experiments 
on animals show that lead, like alcohol, can poison the 
germ cells and injure the offspring. We have little 
exact knowledge of the effects on the next generation 
of the poisons from which workmen in certain trades 
suffer, but certainly these workmen should be protected 
in every possible way from the injurious chemicals. 
Of the hereditary effects of tobacco, coffee and tea, and 
the various drugs which mankind uses, we have no 
reliable knowledge, and it would be useless to attempt a 
discussion of them here. Neither can we speak of the 
effects of sickness or of bad living conditions on the 
germ cells, for an investigation of these subjects has 
not been made. 

Injury during development. Not only is it possible 
to damage the germ cells from which a plant or animal 
is formed, but it is also possible to injure the plant or 



390 KEEPING THE LAWS 

animal after its own life begins. It is in the very early 
stages of its growth that an organism is especially deli- 
cate, and in the first stages of life strong influences 
may even turn the course of development out of its 
natural path. Thus if, in incubating hen's eggs, the 
temperature in the incubator is allowed to run up and 
down during the first days, many of the chicks will be 
weak and crippled and many of them will die within the 
shell. Or if magnesium is added to the water in which 
the eggs of minnows are developing, many of the young 
fish will have only one eye and there will be other 
defects of the eyes and brain. Or if hen's eggs are 
exposed to the fumes of alcohol or ether before they 
are incubated, enough of these substances to injure the 
developing chicks will pass through the shells into the 
eggs. The chicks will be small and weak ; the brains 
of some will be poorly developed ; in many one eye will 
be absent or defective ; and in some a single eye will 
form in the middle of the head. It is also true that in 
the early stages the chicks are very delicate; the little 
group of cells that are in an ^gg that has been incubated 
twelve hours are killed by an amount of heat or alcohol 
that would produce no noticeable effect on the chick 
after it is hatched. 

Some facts about inheritance. A German scientist 
has said that the offspring resembles the parent ** be- 
cause it is made of a piece of the same stuff." This 
statement is good science. If you should cut a branch 
from a geranium and root it in the earth, you would 
expect it to be like the parent plant, because it is made 
of the same cells. Furthermore, if with delicate in- 
strumiCnts you could lift a single cell from a geranium 



THE HEALTH OF POSTERITY 391 

and could provide it with food and get it to grow until 
it produced a new plant, you would expect this also to 
be like the parent geranium; it grew from a part of the 
parent body and it would be natural for it to be like the 
plant from which it came. 

The egg of a frog or fish is a single cell taken from 
the body of the parent and surrounded with a supply of 
food that enables it to grow. It is natural, therefore, 
for the egg to grow into an animal like the parent; the 
young is made of a piece of the *'same stuff," and if it 
is allowed to develop in its own way, it will have the 
same qualities which the parent had. 

The above facts are very important, and when they 
are understood many ideas in regard to heredity that 
are now common will no longer be held. For example, 
we often hear it said that a child has a birthmark De- 
cause the mother saw some one with a scar; that the 
children of the blacksmith have powerful arms because 
of the father's years of labor at the forge; that certain 
children are mentally capable because for several gen- 
erations their parents have been educated ; that if 
women take part in public affairs their daughters will 
be more masculine ; that the child of a musician or a 
mathematician inherits the training of the parent ; and 
that by a thousand years of education the moral nature 
and mental ability of a race of savages could be changed. 

All such ideas are erroneous ; they take no account 
of the powerful influences required to change the nature 
of the germ stuff. The nervous system, the muscles, 
the skin, the liver, and other organs of this kind live 
through but one generation; they are the exclusive 
property of the person to whom they are given and are 



392 KEEPING THE LAWS 

in no way handed on to the generations that are to 
come. Developing the muscles, training the mind, or 
making the hands horny through hard toil does not 
change the germ cells; children inherit the qualities 
which their parents natitrally have, but not those which 
they acquire through learning or by their acts, or from 
the conditions under which they live. It is what 
parents are by nature and not their training or the kind 
of work they do that determines the kind of children 
they will have. When the child of a musician is 
musical, it is because the parent had natural musical 
talent and not because of the cultivation which this 
talent received. 

In a way this view of heredity is discouraging. It 
means that with each generation all education and 
training must begin anew; no pupil can understand his 
arithmetic because of the mathematics which his parents 
learned, or will he inherit from them the skill which 
they acquired in manual work. At the same time, the 
fact that our acts and experiences are not inherited is 
the very basis of democracy. The child of the mansion 
and of the humble cottage start the race of life from the 
same mark; each begins with everything to learn, and 
as far as his natural abilities are concerned he is with- 
out help or hindrance from the training or mistakes of 
his ancestors before him. Untrained ability is inherited 
with the same sureness that trained abihty is inherited, 
and talent that fails to secure recognition in one gen- 
eration can and does find its way upward in the gen- 
erations that follow. The crowning glory of America 
has been that we have attempted to remove the ob- 
stacles to the rise of talent ; that with conscious pur- 



THE HEALTH OE rOSTEK/lV 393 

pose the founders of our government opened the way 
from the log eabin to the President's ehair and tried to 
give each individual a fair and free field for the use of 
any abilities he might possess. That their ideas are in 
hafmony with nature's practices and plans is shown by 
the way our whole nation, under the stimulus of this 
free opportunity, stirs with energy and life. 

A concluding word. Generations come and go, but 
the stream of life flows on and on. Heedless of poverty 
and wealth, of monarch's station or of peasant's lot, it 
passes into the centuries that are to come. As far as 
our knowledge goes, the germ material is not affected 
by the lesser happenings of human life ; we cannot say 
that even severe illnesses leave their imprint upon it. 
But there is much reason to believe that if the germ 
cells are subjected to strong poisons like alcohol and 
lead, nervous systems yet unformed may be disarranged 
and injury to human beings yet to be born may be 
wrought. To preserve the health of posterity each 
generation must transmit the germ material uninjured to 
its successors, and the people of each generation must 
provide proper conditions for the growth and develop- 
ment of those who will take their place. 

QUESTIONS 

What results followed the experiment of giving alcohol to 
guinea pigs ? What two explanations are given for the fact 
that on an average the children of alcoholics are inferior to 
the children of abstainers ? In what stage of life is an organ- 
ism most easily injured ? Why does the offspring resemble the 
parent? What kind of qualities are inherited? What must 
each generation do to provide for the health of posterity ? 



394 



APPENDIX 







Fuel Value 
PER Pound 
OF Food as 
purchased 
(Calories) 


00 Lr> O un O 

ONoo 00 t^ r^ 
^mvo ^ -=tvo 


un no Lr> 

l-^ HH Tt VO 

.^ cs ^ vo -^ 


Lo 


10 Ln 
00 u^ "^ CO 
^ vo -^VO 




1 

i-l 

Q 


UOJJ 


/o 

.0003 

.0016 
.0070 
.0038 


Sioo- 
6000 • 
9000- 


1-n 

8 8 


00 - 

H^ CO CO 

9088 




(-O'd) 
smoqdsoq^j 


■^ CO C^ I>s 


ON rO M 
(S '^ q (S 


000 


M n t^ 
(S CO H^ CO 






^ ur^ 00 N 


Ln 1^ M 00 
^ -; <N q H^ 


t^ 

CO LO 


CO t^ vo 


H 

o 


(O^O) 
miiiD[B3 


9 9^9 


CO rO "^ N »-0 

9 9 9 9^ 


^-^ 

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HH ON 

? 9 "1 9 


% 

CO 


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9 i"^ 

GN»^o6 


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t-i M ON »^ 


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vo 


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asnja-y: 


0^ Lr» 1 r^ 1 06 


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1 

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Apples 

Bacon 

Beans (string) . . . 
Beans (lima, dried) . 
Beef (round, lean) . . 


Beets (fresh) . . . . 

Bread (white) . . . 
Bread (whole wheat) . 
Butter ...... 

Buttermilk 


Celery 

Cheese (cream) . . . 
Chestnuts (fresh) . . 
Chocolate . . 
Clams (without shell) . 


Corn (green) . . . 
Cornmeal (granular) 
Dates (dried) . . . 
Eggs (uncooked) 



APPENDIX 



395 






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GLOSSARY 



This glossary is intended chiefly to help the pupil in the pronunci- 
ation of the more difficult terms. A few words are defined. The 
numbers refer to pages on which will be found text that will help to 
make clear the meanings of the terms. 



abdomen (ab-do'men), 182. 
abdominal (ab-dom'i-nal), 182. 
adenoid (ad'e-noid), 222. 
Agave (a-gahVe), 350. 
appendicitis (ap-pen-di-si'tis), 297. 
aqueous (a'que-us), 259. 
astigmatism (as-tig'mat-ism), 262. 
auricle (o'ri-cl), 192. 
beriberi (ber'i-ber'i), 289. 
bronchial (br5ng'ki-al), 204. 
bronchitis (br6ng-ki'tis), 230. 
canine (ka-nin'), 329. 
capillary (cap'il-la-ri), 191. 
cerebellum (ser-e-bel'lum), 242. 
cerebrum (ser'e-brum), 242. 
chloral (klo'ral), 340. 
choroid (ko'roid), 258. 
cocain (ko'ka-in), 340. 
coccyx (kSk'six), 171. 
cochlea (k6k'le-a), 270. 
cornea (cor'ne-a), 259. 
corpuscle (kor'pusl), 195. 
dentine (den'tin), 326. 
diaphragm (di'a-fram), 204. 
enzyme (en'zim), 293. 
esophagus (e-sof'a-gus), 294. 
Eustachian (yu-stak'ke-an), 221. 
femur (fe'mur), 172. 
glycogen (gh'ko-jen), 306. 
hasheesh (hash'esh), 340. 
hemoglobin (hem-o-glo'bin), 286. 
humerus (hyu'me-rus), 172. 
humidifier (hyu-mid'i-fi-er), 212. 
hygiene (hrji-en or hi'jen), 167. 
hygienic (hi-je-en'ik), 167. 



incisor (in-si'sor), 329. 
lipase (lip'as), 318. 
lymphatic (lim-fat'ik), 197. 
magnesium (mag-ne'zhe-um), 284. 
medulla oblongata (med-ul'la 6b- 

lon-gah'ta), 242. 
molar (mo'lar), 329. 
narcotic (nar-kot'ic), 341. 
nicotin (nik'o-tin), 340. 
pancreas (pan'kre-as)^ 292, 296. 
papilla (pap-irah), 276. 
patella (pa-tel'la), 173. 
pellagra (pel-ag'ra or pe-lah'gra), 

289. 
pepsin (pep'sin), 295. 
phalanges (fa-lan'jez), 173. 
pollen (pSrien), 162. 
polyp (poFip), 220. 
protein (pro'te-in), 284. 
protoplasm (pro'to-plasm), 283. 
respiratory (re-spTr'a-to-ri), 206. 
retina (ret'i-na), 258. 
saliva (sal-i'vah), 294. 
salivary (s3,ri-va-ri), 292. 
sciatic (si-at'ik), 241. 
sclerotic (skle-r6t'ik), 258. 
sepal (sep'l), 162. 
stamen (sta'men), 162. 
stegomyia (steg-o-mi'ya). 
strychnin (strik'nm), 372. 
tympanic (tim-pan'ik), 270. 
tympanum (tim'pan-um), 270. 
ureter (yu-re'ter), 305. 
vitamin (vi'ta-min), 289. 
vitreous (vit're-us), 259. 



396 



INDEX 



A star (*) after a page numher indicates that an illustration of the subject 
appears on that page. 



Abdominal muscles, 182. 

Accidents, preparation for, 363 ; 
treatment of, 363-372; pre- 
venting, 373-374. 

Adenoids, 222*, 223*, 224*; remedy 
for, 224; evil consequences of, 
224-225. 

Air, change of, in lungs, 204-205 ; 
gaseous impurities in, 207 ; ox- 
ygen in, 210; dry, injurious, 
212; moist, 212; overheating, 
212; motion in, necessary, 213. 
See also Fresh air. 

Alcohol, 201 ; and body heat, 237 ; 
injurious to stomach, 301 ; inter- 
ference of, with enzymes, 309; 
derivation of, 350; drinks made 
from, 350; use of, injurious, 
351; effect of, on health, 351, 
on length of life, 352-353, on cell 
structure, 354; diseases caused 
by, 355 ; effects of continued 
moderate use of, 356; eft'ects 
of, on the mind, 2>S7^ ^^ strength 
and control of muscles, 358 ; why 
effects are not generally under- 
stood, 361 ; and heredity, 3 85-3 89. 

Alimentary canal, 292. 

Anatomy, definition, 166. 

Appendicitis, 297. 

Aqueous humor, 259. 

Arteries, 191 ; valves in, 198*. 

Artificial respiration, 368*. 

Astigmatism, 262. 

Auricles, 193. 

Bacteria, due to alcoholic drinks, 

301. 
Bandages, 363*, 364*. 
Bathing, 235-236. 
Baths, cold, 227-228. 
Bean, life cycle of, 161*. 
Bees, pollen carried by, 162. 
Beriberi, 289. 
Bile, 296. 
Bladder, 305*. 



Bleeding, checking, 365*. 

Blood, carrying done by, 191 ; 

circulation of, 191, 192*, 194; 

composition of, 195 ; corpuscles, 

195*. 

Bloodvessels, 191. 

Blow on head, treatment for, 366. 

Body, growth of human, 164; care 
of, 165-166; organs of, 166*; 
framework, 169; muscles that 
support, 181 ; dependence of, on 
spinal column, 183 ; danger from 
chilling or overheating, 234 ; ele- 
ments in, 283 ; minerals neces- 
sary to, 285, 287; phosphorus 
needed for, 287; foods in, 303- 

309. 
Body heat, regulating, 232, 233 ; 

foods and the, 238. 
Bones, cells which form, 164; 

composition of, 173; broken, 

'^IS'^} 175; of the ear, 270; 

calcium needed for, 286. 
Brain, 240, 241, 242*, 256; cells 

which form, 165. 
Bronchial tubes, 204, 206*. 
Bronchitis, 230. 
Burns, treatment of, 366. 

Calcium, in body, 284, 286; de- 
fective teeth due to lack of, 

Cancer, 378. 

Capillaries, 191. 

Carbohydrates, 284, 304. 

Carbon dioxid, 203, 211. 

Carbon in body, 283. 

Carpal bones, 173. 

Cartilage, 176. 

Catarrh, 230. 

Cells, 304; of plants, 161; human 
body built of, 164; nerve and 
muscle, 165*; calcium needed for, 
287. 

Cerebellum, 242, 243. 

Cerebrum, 242, 243*. 



397 



398 



INDEX 



Chest, cavity of the, 204*. 

Chlorin in body, 284. 

Choke damp, 204. 

Choroid coat of eye, 260. 

Circulation, 191, 192*. 

Clavicle, 172. 

Clothing, object of, 231; suiting 

to weather, 234. 
Coccyx, 171. 
Cochlea, 270. 
Colds, 225. 
Collar-bone, 172. 
Connective tissue, 165*. 
Connective tissue fibers, 164. 
Constipation, 320. 
Cornea, 259. 

Corpuscles in blood, 195. 
Cranium, 171. 
"Crowd poisoning," 215. 

Degenerative diseases, 379. 

Dentine, 326. 

Dermis, 232. 

Diaphragm, 204. 

Diet, 3 1 1-3 19. 

Digestion, definition of, 291 ; story 

of, 297-300. 
Digestive glands, 293. 
Digestive system, 292*. 
Digestive troubles, effect on heart, 

201 ; due to eyestrain, 263. 
Dislocations, 175. 
Drowning, treatment for apparent, 

367. 
Dust, respiratory organs injured 

by, 206-207. 
Dyspepsia, among tobacco chewers, 

345- 

Ear, 268-273, 269*, 270*, 271*; 
divisions of, 269; bones of, 270; 
diseases of, 272; care of, 272- 

273. 
Earache, 272. 
Elbow joint, 174*. 
Electricity, dangers from, 368, 369. 
Enzymes, work of digestion done 

by, 293, 301. 
Epidermis, 232. 
Erect carriage, mistakes made in 



trying to secure, 183-184; good 

health important for, 185 ; foot 

troubles hinder, 185. 
Esophagus, 294. 
Eustachian tubes, 221. 
Exercise, too much, injurious, 199 ; 

proper and improper, 200. 
Eye, 256-266; protection of, 257; 

muscles, 258*; structure, 258, 

259*, 260; iris and pupil, 260*; 

care of, 266; removing foreign 

bodies from, 369. 
Eyestrain, 262-263. 

Fainting, treatment for, 368. 

Far-sightedness, 362. 

Fats, 284, 304; proper use of, 
317-318. 

Femur, 172. 

Fibula, 173. 

Floating ribs, 172. 

Flower, parts of, 162*. 

Food, why we need, 281-283 ; 
three classes of, 284; minerals 
in, necessary, 287-288; selection 
of, 290 ; importance of masticat- 
ing, 301 ; within the body, 303- 
309 ; alcohol as, 307 ; surplus, 
307; for energy, 316; cost of, 
321. 

Foot, arch of, 185*, 186; X-ray 
photographs of, 187*; proper 
position of, in walking, 188. 

Fresh air, benefits of, 227; neces- 
sary to nervous system, 252. 

Frostbite, treatment for, 3 70. 

Gaseous impurities in air, 207. 
Gastric juice, 295. 
Germ cells, injuring the, 386-392. 
Glycogen, 306. 

Habits, 247. 

Hair follicles, 233. 

Hay fever, 279-280. 

Headache, remedies for, injurious 

to heart, 200; due to eyestrain, 

263. 
Heart, 193*, 194*; importance of 

caring for, 197; injury to, by 



INDEX 



399 



disease perms, iqS, overexercise, 
iQQ, tobacco and headache rem- 
edies, 200, alcohol, 201, digestive 
troubles, 201. 

Heredity, discussion of, 385-393. 

High-protein diet, 313-316. 

Hip bones, 172. 

Humerus, 172. 

Hydrogen in body, 284. 

Hygiene, definition, 166; two 
points in, 300. 

Hygienic living not a preventive of 
germ diseases, 382. 

Infectious diseases, important facts 

regarding, 159, 381. 
Inheritance, facts about, 391-393. 
Intestines, 295, 296, 300; poisons, 

380. 
Iron in body, 284, 286. 
Ivy poisoning, treatment for, 371. 

Joints, 174*. 

Kidneys, 305*; function of, 306. 

Lead poisoning, 389. 

Leaves, cells which form, 163. 

Ligaments, 174*. 

Lime, in bones, 173; needed in 

body, 286. 
Lime starvation, 287. 
Limiting factor in health, 375-376. 
Lipase, 318. 
Liver, 292, 296. 
Low-protein diet, 312. 
Lungs, 204, 205*. 
Lymph, 196, 305 ; calcium needed 

for, 287. 

Magnesium in body, 284. 

Mastication, importance of, 301. 

Mastoid cavity, 270. 

Mastoiditis, 270. 

Medulla oblongata, 242, 243. 

Meningitis, 270. 

Metacarpals, 173. 

Metatarsals, 173. 

Minerals, necessary to body, 285. 

Motor fibers, 241. 



Mucous membrane, 220, 292, 293. 

Mucus, 220. 

Muscles, 178*, 179*, 180*, 181*, 
182*, 183*, 184*; cells which 
form, 164, 165*; work of, 178; 
structure of, 179 ; 4 how bones are 
moved by, 179, 180; body sup- 
ported by, 181 ; head supported 
by, 181 ; trunk supported by, 
181 ; abdominal, 182 ; effect of 
tobacco on, 343 ; effect of alcohol 
on, isi- 

Nasal chambers, 219. 

Nasal passage, 220*, 221. 

Nasal polyps, 220. 

Near-sightedness, 262. 

Nerve cells, 165*, 240, 241*. 

Nerve fibers, 240, 241*, 276*. 

Nerves, 240. 

Nervous system, 239*, 240; cells 

which form, 164; care of, 249- 

254; effect of tobacco on, 343. 
Nicotin, 340-341, 
Nitrogen in body, 283. 
Nose, function of, 220; care of, 

279; removing foreign bodies 

from, 370. 
Nucleus of cells, 161. 

Olfactory cells, 279. 

Open-air schoolrooms, 211*, 215*, 
216*, 217*. 

Organs of body, 166*. 

Organs of digestion, cells which 
form, 164. 

Oxygen, 210; carried by red cor- 
puscles, 195 ; respiration and, 
203 ; in body, 283. 

Pancreas, 292, 296. 

Pancreatic juice, 296. 

Patella, 173. » 

Pellagra, 289. 

Pelvic bones, 172. 

Pelvis, 172. 

Pepsin, 295. 

Phalanges, 173. 

Phosphorus in body, 284, 286, 287. 

Physiology, definition, 166. 



400 



INDEX 



Pine seed, 162*. 

Pins and needles, treatment for 
swallowed, 370. 

Plants, structure of, 161 ; develop- 
ment of, from ^^%^ 164*, 

Plasma, 195. 

Poisoning, treatment for, 371-372. 

Pollen, 162. 

Pollen grains, 163*. 

Potassium in body, 284. 

Proteins, 284, 304 ; quantity needed 
by body, 311, 312-316. 

Protoplasm, 283, 284. 

Radius, bone in forearm, 173. 

Rats, stomach of, 301*. 

Red corpuscles, oxygen carried by, 

195 ; iron for building, 286. 
Reflex action, 244-246. 
Respiration, 203-208. 
Rest necessary for nervous system, 

251. 
Retina, 260. 
Ribs, 172. 
Running ear, 272. 

Sacrum, 171. 

Saliva, 294. 

Salivary glands, 292, 294*. 

Salt in body, 285 n. 

Scapula, 172. 

Scurvy, 289 n. 

Sensory fibers, 241. 

Shoes, comfortable, 186*; effect 

on arch, of high-heeled, 186; 

recommended by army, 188*. 
Shoulder, bones of, 172; joint of, 

174*. 

Skeleton, 169, 170*, 171*. 

Skin, cells which form, 164; struc- 
ture of, 232*; nerves of touch in, 
276. 

Skull, 171. 

Sleep, necessary for nervous sys- 
tem, 250. 

Sleeping, value of outdoor, 217. 

Small intestine, 300*. 

Smell, sense of, 278; nerve of, 278*. 

Sodium in body, 284. 

Soft palate, 221. 



Sound waves, 271. 

Spinal column, 171; carriage of 

body dependent on, 183. 
Spinal cord, 240, 244. 
Sprains, treatment of, 175. 
Stapes, 270. 

Stems, cells which form, 163. 
Sternum, 172. 
Stomach, 294. 

Suffocation, treatment for, 368. 
Sulfur in body, 384. 
Sweat glands, 233. 

Tarsal bones, 173. 

Taste, sense of, 278. 

Tear duct, 257*. 

Teeth, 292, ^i^S-^i'h^' 

Tendons, 179. 

Thigh, 172. 

Throat, 221; removing foreign 

bodies from, 370. 
Tibia, 173. 

Tissue, connective, 165*. 
Tobacco, effects of use, 200, 208, 

Tonsils, 221, 222*. 

Touch, sense of, 275-277. 

Trachea, 204. 

Trunk, muscles that support, 181. 

Tympanic membrane, 270. 

Ulna, 173. 
Ureter, 305. 
Uric acid, 305. 

Vegetables, beneficial to health, 

318. 
Veins, 191 ; valve in, 199*. 
Ventilation, value of, 209-217. 
Ventricles, 193. 
Vermiform appendix, 2q6. 
Vertebrae, 171. 

Vestibule, central part of ear, 270. 
Villi on intestinal walls, 295. 
Vitamins, 289, 290. 
Vitreous humor, 259. 

Whisky, injurious to stomach, 301. 
White corpuscles, work of, 195. 
Wounds, care of, 364. 



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the printing is clear; the binding is both strong and attractive. 

FOR YOUNGER CHILDREN 

Chadwick-Freeman: Chain Stories and Playlets. 1. The Cat that was 

Lonesome. 2. The Woman and Her Pig. 3. The Mouse that Lost her 

Tail. Each, 16 cents. 
Chancellor: Easy Road to Reading. 1. A Book of Animals. 2. A Book 

of Children. 3. A Book of Fun and Fancy. 4. A Book of Letters and 

Numbers. Each, 18 cents. 
Thompson-Cooper: Making Faces with Pencil and Brush. Book I. Book H. 

Each, 18 cents. 

FOR BOYS AND GIRLS 
Bailey: Sure Pop and the Safety Scouts. 44 cents. 
Burks: Barbara's Philippine Journey. 60 cents. 
Brown: Nature and Industry Readers. 1. Stories of Woods and Fields. 60 

cents. 2. Stories of Childhood and Nature. 56 cents. 3. When the 

World was Young. 52 cents. 
Curtis: Indian Days of the Long Ago. Gift edition, $1.50. 
Curtis: In the Land of the Head-Hunters. Gift edition, $1.50. 
McGovney: Stories of Long Ago in the Philippines. 48 cents. 
Sims-Harry: Dramatic Myths and Legends. Book One: Norse Legends. 

Book Two: Greek and Roman Legends. Each, 36 cents. 

4 POST CARD to the publishers will bring you more detailed information 
^^ with regard to any or all of these books. It is requested that payment 
in stamps, by registered letter, or by post office or express money order 
accompany all orders. 

WORLD BOOK COMPANY 

YONKERS-ON-HUDSON, NEW YORK 
2126 Prairie Avenue, Chicago. Also Atlanta, Dallas, Manila 




INDIAN LIFE AND INDIAN LORE 
INDIAN DAYS OF THE LONG AGO 

BY 

Edward S. Curtis 

Author of ''The North American Indian*' 

Illustrated with photographs by the author and drawings 
by F. N. Wilson 



I 



N this book the author gives an intimate view of 
Indian life in the olden days, reveals the great diversity 
of language, dress, and habits among them, and shows 
how every important act of their Hves was influenced 
by spiritual beliefs and practices. 

The book tells the story of Kuktisim, an Indian lad 
who is eagerly awaiting the time when he shall be a 
warrior. It is full of mythical lore and thrilling adven- 
tures, culminating in the mountain vigil, when Kuktisim 
hears the spirit voices which mark the passing of his 
childhood. 

School edition, $i,oo. Gift edition, $i.^o, 
WORLD BOOK COMPANY, PUBLISHERS 

YONKERS-ON-HUDSON, NeW YoRK 





INDIAN LIFE AND INDIAN LORE 

IN THE LAND OF THE 
HEAD-HUNTERS 

BY 

Edward S. Curtis 

Author of ''Indian Days of the Long Ago'* 

Illustrated with thirty full-page photographs by the author 



1 HEODORE ROOSEVELT once said that Mr. 
Curtis has caught glimpses, such as few white men ever 
catch, into the strange spiritual and mental hfe of the 
Indians. In this book the author shares these glimpses 
with his readers. 

The story centers about Motana, the son of the great 
War Chief. The mountain vigil, the wooing and win- 
ning of Naida, the raid of Yaklus and his warriors, the 
rescue of the captured Naida, and the final victory, cel- 
ebrated by ceremonial dances, are all described. The 
action is rapid and the story is told in the direct, simple 
style of the true epic. 

School edition, $i.oo. Gift edition, $1.^0. 
WORLD BOOK COMPANY, PUBLISHERS 

YONKERS-OV-HUD'^ON, New YoRK 




ADVENTURES IN SAFETY 

SURE POP AND THE 
SAFETY SCOUTS 

By ROY RUTHERFORD BAILEY 

Written in the interest of Safety First at the sugggestion of 
the National Safety Council, and published under its auspices 

vi+ijo pages. Bound in cloth. Illustrated in colors. 
Price 44 cents. 

When Bob and Betty meet Colonel Sure Pop, the quaint, 

mysterious, jolly, lovable little Colonel of the Borderland 

Scouts, they enter upon a thrilling series of adventures in 

Safety. 

They learn about the need for Safety First in their adventures 

with a live wire, on the railroad, at a fire, in workshops and 

mills, and they earn the right to wear the magic button of the 

Safety Scouts. 

Incidentally, they gain true ideals of courage, helpfulness, 

self-control, and self-reliance. 

A book for all young people between the ages of nine and 

ninety. 

WORLD BOOK COMPANY 

YONKERS-ON-HUDSON, NEW YORK 

2 J 26 Prairie Aven«e, Chicagfo 
Also Atlanta Dallas Manila 



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